Unit -8: Conjunctions
Structure
8.0
Objective
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Kinds of Conjunctions
8.2.1 Coordinating conjunctions
(coordinators)
8.2. 2 Correlative conjunctions (correlatives)
8. 3 Sentence connectors
8.4 Subordinating conjunctions/subordinators
8.3
Conjunctions: Usage
8.3.1 Both ... and
8.3.2 And
8.3.3 But'
8.3.4
Or
8.3.5 No/not/never .. or
8.3.6 Either ... or
8.3.7 Neither ... nor
8.3. 8 Nor/neither
8.3.9 Not only ... but also
8.3.10
No sooner ... than
8.3.11 Hardly/scarcely ... when
8.3.12 Whether ... or (not)
8.3.13 If/whether
8.4.2 Sentence connectors: meanings
8.5
Conclusion
8.6
Unit End Questions
8.0
Objective
In this unit we shall study various Conjunctions in English and their
usage.
8.1
Introduction
A conjunction is a word that joins words, phrases or clauses.
8.2
Kinds of Conjunctions
There are four kinds of conjunctions:
8.2.1
Coordinating conjunctions (coordinators)
and, but, or, nor, neither, for, yet, still, so
They are used
to join grammatical units of the same class,
rank or pattern: Rhea and Sapna are coming
to visit us.
The train has arrived but there is no
sign of Umesh .
8.2.
2 Correlative conjunctions (correlatives)
both
... and not only ... but also
either ... or neither ... nor
no/not/never ... or
They are called correlatives because
they go in pairs.
These shoes are not only
expensive but also
of poor quality. Neither the government nor
the army knows
what's going on .
8.3 Sentence connectors
also/too, besides, hence,
however, likewise, moreover, otherwise, so, still,
then, though, thus,
yet, only, equally,
similarly, on the other hand,
on the contrary.
They are used to relate
the meanings/ideas of the sentences they connect. Take the umbrella, otherwise you will get wet.
The offer was good, still he refused.
8.4 Subordinating conjunctions/subordinators
They are used to introduce subordinate clauses and
join them to principal clauses/ main clauses. There are three
kinds of subordinating conjunctions:
A)
Simple
subordinating conjunctions: after, although/though, as, because,
before, if,
however, once, since, than, that, till/until,
unless, when, where, while, whether
He came after I had left.
B) Compound Subordinating conjunctions:
I. as far as, as long
as, as soon as, so long as, so far as, in as much as,
just as
She garlanded him as soon as he
arrived.
ii. in that, so that, in order that,
such that,
now that, provided (that), considering (that), granting (that), on condition that
You can go for the trek
provided you are well.
i i i. as if, as though,
incase
Take extra money in case you need it.
C)
Correlative subordinators
as ... as so …….as
just ….as so ….the the
such ….that so ….that
no sooner ….than hardly …. when
scarcely…. when whether ….or
though ….yet if ... then
If I don't return in an hour then call the police.
Note: a) Relative pronouns and Relative adverbs, too, can function as subordinating conjunctions:
Relative pronouns - who/whose/whom/which/whatlthat
whoever/wh ichever/whatever
Relative adverbs - when/where/why/whenever/whereever
b) Had/WhereiShould
These verbs too, can function as subordinating conjunctions in conditional
clauses when ifis not used.
8.3 Conjunctions: Usage
Coordinators/Correlatives
8.3.1
Both ... and
i) Both takes and, not as well as:
1.
I want to buy both vegetables and milk. (not,
as well as)
2. This pen is both good and cheap.
(not, as well
as) We don't
say:
She will buy both tea
as well as coffee.
He is both intelligent as well as diligent.
ii)
Both ...
and is restricted to two only:
She will buy both milk
and sugar.
(not,
She will buy both milk, sugar and tea.)
8.3.2
And
And
is used in these senses:
i) plus/addition
Ten and ten is twenty.
ii) also/in addition to
She is young and
beautiful.
iii)
sequence
He took out his gun and
fired. (i.e., and then)
iv) result/consequence
1.
Study this
book and you will improve
your English.
2.
Give me blood and I will
give you freedom.
In this construction the imperative is placed before
and expresses condition (if and the clause is placed after
and expresses result.
v)
purpose
He came here and saw his
mother. i.e. He came here to see his mother.
In
this construction and is used as a substitute for an infinitive of purpose.
vi) continuing process
1.
She can dance for hours and hours.
2.
The baby cried and cried.
vii) gradual increase/decrease
1.
It is getting colder
and colder.
2.
He is getting worse
and worse.
viii) contrast
There
are teachers and teachers.
i.e.
There are good teachers and bad teachers as well.
In this construction nouns joined
by and are repeated only
once to indicate contrast between different kinds of the
(supposedly) same person
or thing.
8.3.3
But'
i) contrast/concession
1.
She is very rich but she is unhappy.
2.
He is poor but honest.
Notice that but
introduces a word/phrase/clause contrasting it with what preceded.
i) yet/however/in spite of
He worked hard but he
failed in the examination.
i.e. He failed
in the examination in spite
of hard work. i i i) disagreement/surprise
1. You like her very much. But I
don't. - disagreement
2. You don't like fish.
But I do. - disagreement
3. They are going
to get married. But that's unthinkable. - surprise
8.3.1 Or
Or is used in these senses:
i) alternative
She will buy a car or a scooter.
Note: Oris the
more usual in questions because
either ... or makes a question very awkward:
Is Marya doctor
or a nurse? (not, either
a doctor or a nurse?) Would you like
coffee or tea?
(not, either coffee
or tea?)
ii) negative condition (if not/otherwise)
1. produce
more food or you will
perish. (otherwise) i.e., If you do not produce
more food you will perish.
2. Start
early or you will miss
the bus. (otherwise) i.e., If you do not start
early you will
miss the bus.
8.3.2 No/not/never .. or
No/not/never takes or, not nor.
1.
He has no car or scooter.
2.
He has not got a pen or a pencil.
3.
I have never made
a film or directed one.
8.3.3
Either ... or
1.
My brother wi \I buy either
a car or a house.
2.
She will eat either
rice or bread.
In such sentences the
better alternative is put first:
I prefer chicken
to fish, so depending on what is available I will buy
either chicken or fish.
(not, either fish or chicken)
8.3.4
Neither ... nor
1.
She likes neither fish nor milk.
2.
He can neither read nor write
English.
3.
He wi II buy neither a TV nor a fridge.
Note: The use of either/neither indicates a choice
of two alternatives when it is used as
a pronoun/adjective/adverb:
1.
I have bought two pens. You can have
either.
2.
Neither of the two answers is correct.
3.
There are trees on either side of this
road.
4.
She didn't come and she didn't phone either.
5.
He doesn't play tennis
and neither do I.
But
as a conjunction its use is not restricted to two alternatives only, so we can
say:
1.
I go to office
either by cycle
or by bus or on foot.
2.
He will learn English
or Hindi or Sanskrit.
3.
The clerk is neither
polite, nor helpful,
nor refined .
8.2.
8 Nor/neither
Nor/neither can function
as a coordinator as well
because norcan be used without neither and neither
can be used without nor.
1. She does
not play football. Nor do I. Or
She does not
play football. Neither do I.
8.3.9 Not only ... but also
at only is followed by but also and it means 'both
... and.' In this construction the more important word
(noun/adjective/verb) is placed after also to make it prominent:
1.
He is not only a good worker but also a leader.
2.
She is not only
young but also
beautiful.
Note:
a) Beginning a sentence with not only
makes it emphatic. In this construction inversion of the
subject and verb
is obligatory:
Not only is she tall but also beautiful. (not Not
only she is tall)
b) Position of Correlatives
Correlatives are followed by the same class of words
in a sentence:
1.
He has not only a bicycle
but also a scooter. (noun
+ noun)
2.
He saw neither Geetha
nor Urvashi. (noun + noun)
3.
He neither phoned Seetha
nor wrote to her. (verb+
verb)
4. She is not only young
but also beautiful. (adjective + adjective) We don't say:
He phoned neither Seetha nor wrote to
her. (noun + verb)
8.3.10
No sooner ... than
No sooner is necessarily followed by than:
No
sooner had the police reached than the burglars fled.
8.3.11
Hardly/scarcely ... when
Hardly/scarcely is followed by when, not than:
Hardly had I reached the
station when the train steamed off. (not, than)
No sooner had he gone to bed
when he fell asleep.
Scarcely had he fallen
asleep than he had a dream.
Notice how inversion occurs when a
sentence begins with no sooner/hardly
/scarcely:
1.
No sooner had he gone to bed (not,
he had gone to bed)
2.
Scarcely had
she heard the
news (not, she had heard
the news)
8.3.12
Whether ... or (not)
i) Or is used when all the alternatives are expressed:
I
don't know whether she is guilty or innocent.
When only the first alternative is expressed, or not is used:
I don't know whether she is guilty
or not. (innocent left out)
8.3.13 If/whether
i) If and whether
are used in indirect speech
when it is a yes/no
question or an alternative question:
1.
He said, 'Do you like fish'?
He asked me if/whether I
liked fish.
2.
She said, 'Do you write poems'?
She asked me if/whether I
wrote poems.
ii)
Whether (not
i~ is always used before
infinitives and prepositions: I don't know whether to accept or reject this
offer.
It all depends on whether he accepts my terms and
conditions. We don't say:
He hasn't yet decided if to join business or politics.
My career depends
on if I get a first in English.
iii)
A noun
clause used as the subject
of a sentence begins with
whether (not i~: Whether she will come or not is uncertain.
If he will take his exam this
year or not is still
undecided. Sentence Connectors
Words/phrases used to introduce an idea that is related
to what has been said in the preceding sentence or sentences are called sentence
connectors. They always
refer back to an idea expressed
already. Thus they establish a logical connection between one idea and the next so as to avoid
incoherence/isolation. A sentence connector not linked with the
preceding sentence becomes meaningless; for example, we can't say:
On the contrary, he opposed me. Instead we say:
He
didn't support me. On the contrary, he opposed me.
Sentence connectors are not a separate class of words. They are a mixed
bag because they consist of three
classes of words:
a) adverbs/adverbial phrases
b)
preposition/prepositional phrases
c) coordinating conjunctions
1.
He is tall and handsome. Also,
he is very rich. (adverb)
2.
I don't need a big car. Besides, it is too expensive for me. (adv./prep.)
3.
She didn't help me.
Nor/neither will she.
(conjunction)
.1 Sentence connectors
and conjunctions
i) The function of a conjunction is to join words, phrases
and clauses but
the function of a sentence connector is to establish
a link between one idea and the next. It does not join clauses
to make a sentence. On the contrary, it usually
introduces a new sentence, so such sentences are marked off by a full
stop/dash/comma:
1.
He will buy a car or a scooter. (or as a conjunction)
2.
He is tired. Or, at least
he looks tired.
(or as a sentence connector)
ii) A sentence connector differs from a conjunction from the view
point of its position as well. A sentence connector usually takes an initial or final slot
in a sentence but a conjunction has a mid-position.
He will either
watch TV or listen to the radio.
(conjunction) He can't sing.
He can't dance
either. (sentence connector)
8.4.2 Sentence connectors: meanings
Sentence
connectors are used in these senses:
i) addition
also, moreover, what is more too, either, neither, nor
I don't need a car.
Moreover, it is costly.
He
can't write. He can't read
either.
ii) enumeration
first, secondly. furthermore, next, then, last
first
and foremost, more importantly, to start with, and to conclude
You
have finished your homework. Now, what are you going to do next?
iii)
contrast
instead,
on the contrary, on the one hand ... on the other (hand)
On the one hand science
is a blessing. On the other (hand)
it is a curse. He is not poor. On the contrary, he is very
rich.
iv) concession
besides,
else, however, sti II, yet, nevertheless
He
doesn't behave well. Nevertheless, he hopes to get votes.
You have committed a grave offence. However, I excuse you this time.
v) transition
and, now, by the way, meantime, meanwhile, in the meantime
The train has been delayed by 2 hours. Let's have lunch in the meantime.
vi)
attitude/viewpoint
indeed, in fact, actually
The
rains are late this year, in fact, they were late last year as well.
vii) result
hence,
so, therefore, thus, as a result
I don't need this reference book now. So you can take it home for a week.
viii) inference
else, otherwise, in other
words, then
Take
a taxi. Else you'll be late for your appointment.
ix) apposition
for example, for instance, that is,
that
is to say, namely, viz.
There are many
places to visit
round Delhi. Youcould, for example, go to Agra. excises
I. Correct these sentences:
Both he as well as she are singers.
He will either buy a car or a scooter.
3. She neither eats bread nor rice.
I have no pen nor pencil.
o. She hasn't got tea nor
milk.
o sooner we saw a tiger when
we fled away. Hardly I had started than it began
to rain. either he can sit nor stand
nor sleep.
at
only hegave me food but also money.
He
can't write nor speak English.
J. Choose the right
alternative:
Both he she can do this work.
(as well as/and) He has no pen paper.
(or/nor)
a sooner did she receive a telegram she left for
home. (than/when) Hardly had he stood
up he fell unconscious. (when/than)
He will go neither to Delhi to
Bombay. (nor/or)
3. . Fill in the blanks:
He has all the facilities
he doesn't make use of them.
the bus arrived
we took our
seats. We have filled the tanks with
water, what do we do ?
It's impossible to reach by Friday. I have a wedding to attend here on the same day.
sports film interest him.
8.5
 |
Conclusion
You have had a detailed
study in this unit about the various
conjunctions in English. Their proper
usage will help you in writing good
and effective English.
8.6
Unit End Questions
1
Give one example each
of co-ordinating conjunctions.
2 Differentiate between conjunctions and sentence connectors giving examples.
