Direct and indirect objects
Objects come in two types, direct and InDirect:
Direct objects
The direct object is the word that receives the action of a verb.
Examples:
Christine saw a snake.
( a snake receives the action of saw) Rose wears goggles.
(goggles receives the action of wears) Sometimes the direct object tells the result of an action.
Examples:
Tecla won the race.
She received a trophy.
To find the direct object first find the verb.
Then ask whom or what after the verb.
Examples:
Christine saw a snake.
Rose wears goggles
Verb: saw verb: wears
Saw what? a snake wears what? goggles
Tecla won the race She received a trophy
Verb: won verb: received
Won what? the race received what? a trophy
Remember, we said earlier that a verb that has a direct object is called a transitive verb and a verb that does not have an object is called an intransitive verb.
We also said that a verb may be intransitive in one sentence and transitive in another.
Other verbs are strictly intransitive like disagree.
Indirect objects
The indirect object refers to a person or thing who receives the direct object.
They tell us for whom or to whom something is done.
Others tell to what or for what something is done.
Examples:
I gave him the book.
He is the indirect object as he is the beneficiary of the book.
Direct object or adverb?
Direct objects are sometimes confused with adverbs.
The direct object tells what or whom as we have seen earlier.
Adverbs on the other hand tell how, where, when or to what extent.
They modify the verbs.
Examples:
Brian Swam slowly.
(slowly is an adverb telling how) Brian Swam a tough race.
(race is a direct object telling what).
Verbs can also be followed by a phrase that tells how, when, or where.
This kind of a phrase is never a direct object but an adverbial phrase.
Example:
Brian swam across the pool.
(a cross the pool tells where Brian Swam).
Therefore, to decide whether a word or a phrase is a direct object or adverb, decide first what it tells about the verb.
If it tells how, where, when or to what extent, it is an adverb.
If it tells what or whom, it is a direct object.
Exercise 2
Identify the objects or the adverbs/adverbial phrases in the following sentences.
If the sentence has two objects, indicate the direct object and the indirect object.
1. Nanu sings pop music.
2. Nanu sings sweetly.
3. He spoke very quietly.
4. I have read that book three times.
5. She has gone to the bank.
6. David gave her a present.
7. David disagreed bitterly.
8. The player sat on his heels.
9. She made a list of the items to buy.
10. They offered him help.
Complements
Some sentences do not take objects or adverbs (or adverbial phrases) after the verbs.
Instead, they take complements.
A complement is the part of the sentence that gives more information about the subject (subject complement) or about the object (object complement) of the sentence.
Subject complements
Subject complements normally follow certain verbs like be, seem, look, etc.
Examples:
He is British. (British gives more information about he)
She became a nurse.(nurse gives more information about she)
Object complements
Object complements follow the direct objects of the verb and give more information about those direct objects.
Examples:
They painted the house red.
(red is a complement giving more information about the direct object house)
She called him an idiot. (an idiot is a complement giving more information about the direct object he).
The complement often consists of an adjective (e.
g.
red) or a noun phrase (e.
g.
an idiot) but can also be a participle phrase.
Example: I saw her standing there.
(standing there is a complement telling more about her).
Exercise 3
Pick out the complements in the following sentences and indicate whether subject, object or participial complements.
1. The tourist is a German citizen.
2. She seems a very arrogant lady.
3. You look tired.
4. They painted the car green.
5. James nicknamed Lucy the queen.
6. I saw him stealing the mango.
7. They beat the thief senseless.
8. The priest looks a kind person.
9. We left her crying.
10. Job left her trembling.
Types of Sentences
Sentences can be categorised in terms of structure or in terms of purpose.
(A) In terms of structure
Sentences can be categorised into 3 main types:
(i) Simple sentences
(ii) Compound sentences
(iii) Complex sentences.
(i) Simple sentences
A simple sentence contains a single subject and predicate.
It describes only one thing, idea or question, and has only one verb.
It contains only an independent (main) clause.
Any independent clause can stand alone as a sentence.
It has a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought.
Examples:
Bill reads.
Jack plays football.
Even the addition of adverbs, adjectives and prepositional phrases to a simple sentence does not change its structure.
Example:
The white dog with the black collar always barks loudly.
Even if you join several nouns with a conjunction, or several verbs with a conjunction, it remains a simple sentence.
Example:
The dog barked and growled loudly.
(ii) Compound sentences
A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentences joined together using a co-ordinating conjunction such as and, or or but.
Example:
The sun was setting in the west and the moon was just rising.
Each clause can stand alone as a sentence.
Example:
The sun was setting in the west.
The moon was just rising.
Every clause is like a sentence with a subject and a verb.
A coordinating conjunction goes in the middle of the sentence; it is the word that joins the two clauses together.
Other Examples:
I walked to the shops, but my wife drove there.
I might watch the film, or I might visit my aunt.
My friend enjoyed the film, but she didn’t like the actor.
Note
Two simple sentences should be combined to form one compound sentence only if the ideas they express are closely related.
If the ideas are not closely related, the resulting sentence may not make sense.
Examples:
InCorrect:The car is old, and Dan likes sociology.
Correct: The car is old, but it functions superbly.
Punctuating compound sentences
When writing some compound sentences, a comma is used before the conjunction.
The comma tells the reader where to pause.
Without a comma, some compound sentences can be quite confusing.
Examples:
Confusing: Jane studied the specimen and her sister took notes.
(The sentence might cause the reader to think that Jane studied both the specimen and her sister)
Better: Jane studied the specimen, and her sister took notes.
(The comma makes the sentence to be clear)
Sometimes the parts of a compound sentence can be joined with a semicolon (;) rather than a comma and a conjunction.
Example:
Jane studied the specimen; her sister took notes.
Never join simple sentences with a comma alone.
A comma is not powerful enough to hold the sentences together.
Instead use a semicolon.
Example:
InCorrect:My father enjoyed the meal, he didn’t like the soup.
Correct: My father enjoyed the meal; he didn’t like the soup.
Correct: My father enjoyed the meal, but he didn’t like the soup.
(iii) Complex sentences
A complex sentence contains one independent (main) clause and one or more subordinate (dependent) clauses.
They describe more than one thing or idea and have more than one verb in them.
They are made up of more than one clause, an independent clause (that can stand by itself) and a dependent clause (which cannot stand by itself).
Example:
The picture looks flat because it is colourless.
(The picture looks flat is the independent (main) clause whereas because it is colourless is the subordinate (dependent) clause)
What is a clause?
A clause is a group of words that contains a verb and its subject.
There are two types of clauses – main clauses and subordinate clauses.
Main clauses
A main clause is a clause that can stand as sentence by itself.
A compound sentence contains two or more main clauses, because it is made up of two or more simple sentences.
Each of these simple sentences is a main clause.
Example:
Robots operate machines, and they solve many labour problems.
Robots operate machines and they solve many labour problems are both main clauses.
They are also simple sentences.
Main clauses are sometimes called independent clauses.
Subordinate clauses
Subordinate clauses are clauses that do not express a complete thought.
So they cannot stand by themselves.
Examples:
If technology will improve When robots can do the work While electronics will work After the system is complete.
None of the above clauses express a complete thought.
They are sentence fragments that leave the reader wondering then what?
Subordinate clauses are introduced by subordinating conjunctions such as if, when, while, and after.
Other examples of subordinating conjunctions:
although because so that until
as before than whatever
as if in order that though wherever
as long as provided till whenever
as though since unless where
Now we can understand a complex sentence better.
We have said that it contains one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses.
Main clause subordinate clause
The bell started ringing before we were out of bed.
The battery needs recharging so that it can work tonight.
The subordinate clause can sometimes appear before the main clauses.
Examples:
When the power failed, the computer stopped.
Before you know it, your flat screen television will be stolen.
The subordinate clause can also sometimes appear in between the sentence.
Example:
The medicine man, who knew many tricks, cheated the man that he had been bewitched.
Types of subordinate clauses
Subordinate clauses may be used in sentences as adjectives, adverbs and nouns in complex sentences.
Such clauses are called adjectival, adverbial and noun clauses respectively.
They add variety to one’s writing.
They can also make one’s writing more interesting by adding details.
Examples:
Without subordinate clause: The bushman told us about the hidden cave.
With subordinate clause: The bushman, who knew the forest well, told us about the hidden cave.
(i) Adjectival clauses
An adjectival clause acts as an adjective in a sentence, that is, it modifies a noun or a pronoun.
Examples:
The bushman, who knew the forest well, told us about the hidden cave.
(who knew the forest well is an adjectival clause that modifies the noun bushman).
The bushman told us a legend that involved the cave.
(that involved the cave is an adjectival clause that modifies the noun legend).
An adjective clause usually comes immediately after the noun it modifies.
More Examples:
People still search for the treasure that the pirate hid.
As can be seen from the above examples, adjectival clauses, like adjectives, modify nouns or pronouns answering questions like which? or what kind of?
Adjective Adjective clause
The red coat the coat which I bought yesterday
Like the adjective red the adjectival clause which I bought yesterday modifies the noun coat.
Note than an adjectival clause usually comes after what it modifies while an adjective comes before.
Relative pronouns
Besides use of subordinating conjunctions, adjectival clauses can be introduced by relative pronouns.
Relative pronouns are the words who, whom, whose, that and which.
These words relate the subordinate clauses to the word it modifies in the main clause.
Examples:
The books that people read were mainly religious.
Some fire-fighters never meet the people whom they save.
The meat which they ate was rotten.
In the last sentence, the relative clause (called so because it is introduced by the relative pronoun which) which they ate modifies the noun meat and answers the question which meat? More Examples:
They are searching for the one who borrowed the book.
The relative clause who borrowed the book modifies the pronoun one and answers the question which one?
Besides relating the adjectival clause to a noun or pronoun in the main clause, a relative pronoun may also act as the subject, object, predicate pronoun, or object of a preposition in the clause.
Examples:
Subject: This is the forest that has a secret cave.
(that is the subject of has)
Object: The map, which you saw, guides the way.
(which is the object of saw)
Object of a preposition: The map leads to the cave of which the bushman spoke.
(which is the object of the preposition of)
In informal writing or speech, you may leave out the relative pronoun when it is not the subject of the adjectival clause, but you should usually include the relative pronoun in formal academic writing.
Examples:
Formal: The books that people read were mainly religious.
Informal: The books people read were mainly religious.
Formal: The map which you saw guides the way.
Informal: The map you saw guides the way.
But never omit the relative pronoun if it is in the clause.
Examples:
Correct: This is the forest that has a secret cave.
InCorrect:This is the forest has a secret cave.
Commas are put around adjectival clauses only if they merely add additional information to a sentence.
Example:
The map, which you saw, shows the way.
This adjective clause can be left out without affecting the grammatical structure of the sentence.
It is merely adding information to the sentence by telling us which map?
The map shows the way.
(ii) Adverbial clauses
An adverbial clause is a subordinate clause which takes the place of an adverb in a sentence.
Just like adverbs and adverbial phrases, adverbial clauses answer the questions where, when, how, to what extent, with what goal/result and under what conditions.
In addition, an adverbial clause may tell why.
Note how an adverb clause can replace an adverb and an adverbial phrase in the following Example:
Adverb: The Prime Minister gave a speech here.
Adverbial phrase: The Prime Minister gave a speech in the afternoon.
Adverbial clause: The Prime Minister gave a speech where the workers were striking.
Usually, an adverbial clause is introduced by a subordinating conjunction like because, when, whenever, where, wherever, since, after and so that.
Note that a subordinate adverb clause can never stand alone as a complete sentence.
Example:
after they left dining hall The above adverbial clause will leave the reader asking what happened after they left the dining hall?
Adverbial clauses express relationships of cause, effect, place, time and condition.
Cause
Adverb clauses of cause answer the question why?
Example:
Njoroge wanted to kill his uncle because he had murdered his father.
Effect
Adverbial clauses of effect answer the question with what goal/result?
Example: Njoroge wanted to kill his uncle so that his father’s murder would be avenged.
Time Adverbial clauses of time answer the question when? Example: After Njoroge’s uncle married his mother, he wanted to kill him Condition Adverbial clauses of condition answer the question under what conditions? Example: If the uncle cooperates, Njoroge may decide to pardon him.
Place Adverbial clauses of place answer the question where? Example: Njoroge organised a demonstration where his father’s murder occurred.
Note that an adverbial clause can appear either before or after the main clause of the sentence.
(iii) Noun clauses A noun clause is a clause which takes the place of a noun or a noun phrase.
It can be used in any way that a noun is used.
That is, it can act as the subject, object, object of a preposition, or predicate noun in a sentence.
Just like a noun, a noun clause answers the questions who, when, or what? Examples: As subjects Noun: Kamau is unknown Noun phrase: Their destination is unknown Noun clause: Where they are going is unknown.
The noun clause where they are going is the subject of the verb is.
As objects Noun: I know French.
Noun phrase: I know the three ladies.
Noun clause: I know that Latin is no longer spoken as a native language.
In the first sentence, the noun French acts as the direct object of the verb know.
In the third sentence, the entire clause that Latin is no longer spoken as a native language is the direct object of the verb know.
As objects of the preposition Noun: He talked about him.
Noun phrase: He talked about the funny items.
Noun phrase: He talked about what you bought at the supermarket.
In the first sentence the pronoun him is the object of the preposition about.
In the third sentence, what you bought at the supermarket is the object of the preposition about and answers the question about what? As predicate nouns Her first day in school was what shaped her life.
The adverbial clause what shaped her life gives more information about the subject of the sentence Her first day in school.
Words often used to introduce noun clauses that when whose what whatever whoever how who whoever where whom Note You cannot tell the kind of a clause from the word that introduces it.
You can tell the kind of clause only by the way it is used in a sentence.
If the clause is used as a noun, it is a noun clause.
If the clause is used as a modifier, it is an adjectival clause or an adverbial clause.
Examples: Whoever built the house was not an expert.
(noun clause as a subject) No one knew where he came from.
(noun clauses a direct object) He left the construction site whenever he wished.
(as an adverbial clause) This is the layout which he left behind.
(as an adjectival clause).
Exercise 4
Identify the following sentences as simple, compound or complex.
If it is a complex sentence, indicate whether it has an adjective, an adverb or a noun subordinate clause.
1. The hotel is not very old.
2. The hotel is not very old; it was constructed in 1987. 3. It has a strange name, but it attracts many tourists.
4. Whoever broke the mirror will have to pay for it.
5. The Gor Mahia fans hope that the team will win again.
6. Did I tell you about the author whom I met? 7. They are searching for the man stole the cow.
8. People began riding horses at least five thousand years ago.
9. Some people watch the moon as though it affects their lives.
10. Some superstitions developed when people felt helpless about the world around them.
11. The parachute was really a sail that was designed for skiing.
12. The moon orbits the earth every 291/2 days.
13. My dog loves bread crusts.
14. I always buy bread because my dog loves the crusts.
15. Whenever lazy students whine, Mrs.
Ndegwa throws pieces of chalk at hem.
16. The lazy students whom Mrs.
Ndegwa hit in the head with pieces of chalk complained bitterly.
17. My dog Shimba, who loves bread crusts, eats them under the kitchen table.
18. A dog that drinks too much milk will always be alert.
19. You really do not want to know what Aunt Lucy adds to her stew.
20.
We do not know why, but the principal has been away from school for two months.
(B) In terms of purpose We have seen how sentences are categorised into simple, compound and complex depending on their internal structures.
Now, we shall see how they can be categorised in terms of purpose.
There are five kinds of sentences classified according to their end marks and the different jobs they do: (i) Declarative sentences (ii) Interrogative sentences (iii) Exclamatory sentences (iv) Imperative sentences (v) Conditional sentences (i) Declarative sentences A declarative sentence simply states a fact or argument without requiring either an answer or action from the reader or listener.
It is punctuated with a simple period.
(fullstop) Examples: Nairobi is the capital of Kenya He asked which path leads back to the park.
Deserts are dry.
The declarative sentence is the most important type of sentences.
You can write an entire essay or report using only declarative sentences, and you should always use them for more often than any other type.
Some declarative sentences contain indirect questions but this does not make them into interrogative sentences.
Examples: He asked which path leads back to the park.
(ii) Interrogative sentences An interrogative sentence asks a direct question and always ends in a question mark.
Examples: How many roads lead into Mombasa city? Does money grow on trees? Do you like deserts? Note that an indirect question does not make a sentence interrogative.
Examples: Direct/interrogative When was professor Saitoti the Vice President of Kenya? Indirect/Declarative I wonder when Professor Saitoti was the Vice President of Kenya.
A direct question requires an answer from the reader or listener, while an indirect question does not.
A special type of direct questions is the rhetorical question.
A rhetorical question is one that you do not expect the reader or listener to answer.
Example: Why did the Mau Mau war take place? Some people argue that it was simply a way of Kenyan Africans saying “enough is enough”.
Rhetorical questions can be very effective way to introduce new topics or problems in one’s writing or speech.
But if you use them too often, you sound patronising or even monotonous or mediocre! (iii) Exclamatory sentences An exclamatory sentence expresses strong feeling, emphasis or emotion.
It is actually a more forceful version of a declarative sentence that is marked at the end with an exclamation mark.
Examples: It was so cold! How beautiful this picture is! You look so lovely tonight! Exclamatory sentences are vey common in speech and sometimes in writing (but rarely).
Note that an exclamation mark can appear at the end of an imperative sentence, but this does not make it into an exclamatory sentence.
(iv) Imperative sentences An imperative sentence gives a direct command to someone.
This sentence can end either with a period or with an exclamation mark, depending on how forceful the command is.
Examples: Sit! Read this book tomorrow.
Always carry water.
Wash the windows! Note You should not usually use an exclamation mark with the word “please”.
Example: Close that door, please! Please close that door.
In an imperative sentence, you is always the subject.
It is usually not stated in the sentence.
We say that you is the “understood” or “implied” subject.
Examples: (You) Please bring my camera.
(You) Take your medicine before going to bed.
(v) Conditional sentences A conditional sentence expresses what one would to if a condition were or were not met.
The condition in the conditional if-clause will determine the fulfilment of the action in the main clause.
Examples: If I had a million dollars, I would buy a Hummer.
John would be very successful if he had more brains.
In sentence 1, the condition of having a million dollars will determine whether the speaker will buy a hummer or not.
In sentence, the condition of John not having more brains determines that he is not very successful.
Exercise 5
Label each of the following sentences declarative, imperative, exclamatory, interrogative or conditional 1. There is a terrible storm tonight.
2. Try to cover yourself with a blanket.
3. How strong the winds are! 4. If the storm continues, we shall have to go down into the bunker.
5. Do you think it will rip off the roof? 6. Look at that that flash of lighting! 7. What an amazing sight that is! 8. The night looks dark and scary.
9. Please tell the children to stop screaming.
10. Susan will sit beside me if the storm continues.
11. We are hopeful all will be well.
12. Dive under the table if it breaks the roof.
13. How will I find my way? 14. Can I take a glass of water? 15. John wants to know what will happen if our house collapses.
16. There goes the thunder! 17. We shall have to move to another city if we get out of this alive.
18. Tell me a good city where we can move to.
19. The storm is subsiding.
20.
Hooray! Safety at last! DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH DIRECT SPEECH Direct speech is used to give a speaker’s exact words.
It is also referred to as direct quotation.
Direct speech is always enclosed within quotation marks.
Examples: Hemedi announced, “My aunt works in a biscuit factory ” “Creating jobs will be my first priority” the governor said.
A comma always separates the quoted words from the speaker’s name, whether the name comes before or after the quotation
Examples:
Jim asked “Who are you voting fir?”
“I don’t know yet” answered Carol.
A direct quotation always begins with a capital letter Example:
Senator Karabba said, “You must believe in the new constitution”.
When a direct quotation is divided by speech tags, the second part of the quotation must begin with a small letter.
Example:
“Register to vote,” said the senator, ‘before the end of the day”.
If the second part of the quotation is a complete sentence, the forst kword of this sentence is capitalized.
Example: “I did register,” said Carol.
“It took only a few minutes”
Commas and full stops are placed inside quotation marks
Example:
“Last night,” said Joyce,” I listened to a debate”
Quotation marks and exclamation marks are placed inside a quotation mark if they belong to the quotation.
If they do not, they are placed outside the quotation.
Examples:
Joyce asked, “Whom are you voting for?
Did Carol say, “I don’t know yet’?
I can’t believe that she said, “I don’t know yet’!
Speech tags may appear before, in the middle or at the direct speech.
Examples:
He said, “You know quite well that you have to vote”
“You know quite well, he said, “that you have to vote”.
“You know quite well that you have to vote,” he said.
Exercise 6
Rewrite the following sentences correctly in direct speech.
Ensure you puntuiate them accordingly.
1. John said there was a terrible accident in Nairobi.
2. Petro added it happened in Umoja Estate.
3. it involved a train and a bus added John
4. sarah asked did anyone die
5. No one died, but the railway line was destroyed answered Peter
6. Over the months said John the railway line has been rebuilt
7. How lucky that no one died exclaimed sarah
8. I think kthey shoul put a railway-crossing sigh board
Petro said it would help bus0drivers a lot
9. Or they shoul put bumps on both sides of the railway line to slow down the buses John suggested
10. Who knows what might happen next wondered Sarah
Indirect speech is used to refer to a person’s words without quoting him or her exactly.
It is also referred to as indirect quotation or reported speech.
The original spoken words are not repeated.
The exact meaning is given without repeating the speaker’s words.
Example:
Direct speech: The governor said, “Creating new jobs will be my first priority”
Indirect speech: The governor said that creating new jobs would be his first priority.
Several changes do occur when changing a sentence from direct to indirect speech
1. Quotation marks
Quotation marks are left out when writing a sentence in direct speech.
Example:
Direct: Hemedi announced, “My aunt works in a biscuit factory”
InDirect: Hemedi announced that his aunt worked in a biscuit factory.
2. Tense - The tense of a verb in the direct sentence will change in indirect speech
Examples:
1. Simple present changes to past simple
Direct: John said, “She goes to school early”
InDirect: John said that she went to school early.
2. Simple past changes to past perfect
Direct: John said, “She went to school early”
InDirect: John said that she had gone to school early.
3. Present progressive changes to past progressive
Direct: “The baby is eating a banana,” the nurse said.
InDirect: The nurse said that the baby was eating a banana.
4. Present perfect changes to past perfect
Direct: “South Sudan has become a republic,” the new president declared.
InDirect: The new president declared that South Sudan had become a republic
5. Past progressive changes to past perfect progressive
Direct: “ I was dreaming when the fire started,” the boy said.
InDirect: The boy said the he had been dreaming when the fire started.
6. Future simple changes to modal
Direct: “I will visit you tomorrow,” my desk mate said.
InDirect:My desk mate said the he would visit me the following day.
7. May changes to might
Direct: : I may also visit you too,” I replied.
InDirect: I replied that I might also visit him too.
Sometimes the verb in indirect speech does not change tense.
This occurs in sentences that are universal truths
Direct: Our Geography teacher said “The earth rotates round the sun”
InDirect: Our Geography teacher said that the earth rotates round the sun
Words referring to place also change
Examples:
Direct: “I live here,” retorted the old man.
InDirect: The old man retorted that he lived there
Direct: “This place stinks,” noted the boy.
InDirect: The boy noted that that place stunk.
Words referring to time also change
Examples:
Direct: “I will visit you tomorrow,” he shouted.
InDirect: He shouted that he would visit me the following/next day
Direct : “ He died last year,” the policeman reported.
InDirect: The policeman reported that he had dies the previous year/ the year before.
Demonstrative pronouns also change:
Examples: Direct: “This book is mine,” Jane claimed.
InDirect: Jane claimed that that book was hers.
Direct: “These are hard times,” observed the president.
InDirect: The president observed that those were hard times.
Pronouns also change when rewriting a sentence from direct to indirect speech.
Examples:
Direct: “My car is better than yours,” the teacher bragged.
InDirect: The teacher bragged that his/her car was better that his/hers/theirs.
Exercise 7
Change the following sentences from Direct to Indirect speech.
1. “Did you see the fire at the West gate Mall?” asked Joel.
2. Njagi said,” Ten fire-engines arrived in fifteen minutes.
” 3. Patty exclaimed, “It destroyed an entire block of building!” 4. “One fire fighter was slightly injured,” said Joel.
5. Njagi said, “Several people working in the building escaped unhurt.
” 6. “Tell me what will happen to them,” said Patty.
7. “Other people are giving them food and clothes,” replied Joel.
8. Njagi added,” They are resting in the school for now.
” “These terrorists will finish us!” exclaimed Patty.
9. “Don’t worry,” Joels aid “They will be apprehended tomorrow”.
Question Tags
A question tag or a tag question is a phrase that is added at the end of a statement to turn into a question.
When a speaker uses a question tag at the end of a statement, he/she is seeking for approval, confirmation or correction.
Examples:
Approval: I look smart today, don’t I? Yes you do.
Corfirmation: These are the new students, aren’t they? Yes they are.
Correction: I paid your money yesterday, didn’t I ? No you didn’t Many learners face a problem of supplying the correct question tags to sentences.
This is because they fail to observe the following rules of question tags:
1. A comma must be put to separate the statement with the question tag.
A question mark must be placed at the end of the question tag.
Examples:
Rufftone has released a new album, hasn’t he?
He is pushing for a decision by tomorrow, isn’t he?
2. The auxiliary verb in the statement must be repeated in the question tag
Examples:
Neson Mandela was in prison for 27 years, wasn’t he?
The people of South Africa have lost a great hero, haven’t they?
3. When there is no auxiliary verb in the statement, the appropriate form of the auxiliary verb Do must be used in the question tag
Examples:
Mark Francis wakes up very early, doesn’t he?
Peter Bryan bought an I-pad phone, didn’t he ?
4. The subject in the statement must be repeated in the question tag.
If it is a noun in the statement, it changes to the appropriate pronoun.
If it is a pronoun in the statement, it remains a pronoun in the question tag.
Examples:
Fatou Bensouda is prosecutor in ICC, isn’t she?
She does her work meticulously, doesn’t she?
5. Wen the statement is positive ( i.e. It does not have the word not in it), the question tag must be negative ( i.e. must use the negative word not) and visa versa.
Examples:
David Rudisha has broken another record, hasn’t he?
Cathrerine Ndereba hasn’t been very active, has she?
Douglas Wakiihuri does not run any more, does he?
Ezekiel Kemboi entertains the audience after winning, doesn’t he?
You will note form the above examples that the auxiliary verb is usually contrated (joined) with the negative indicator not when using question tags.
However, this does not apply when using primary auxiliary verb am and the modal auxiliary verbs will and shall.
Am does not allow contraction with not, will and shall usually change their forms to allow contraction.
Examples: Wrong : am the next speaker, amn’t I?
Correct: I am the nest speaker, am I not?
Wrong: They will be late for church, willn’t they? Correct: They will be late for church, won’t they?
Wrong: We shall attend the Memorial service, willn’t we?
Correct: we shall attend the memorial service, shan’t we?
6. Whereas there is no inversion in the statement, inversion must occur in the question tag i.e the auxiliary verb comes before the subject
Examples:
President Uhuru Kenyatta has won the case, hasn’t he?
Subject verb verb verb subject
He can now relax and attend to his duties, can’t he?
Subject verb verb subject
7. For sentences that are inform of requests and commands, the question tags will commonly take the auxiliary verb will or shall followed by the appropriate pronoun.
Examples: Please help me with your pen, will you?
Let us go for a swim, shall we?
Bring me that chair, will you?
Stop that noise, will you?
Kneel down right away, will you?
Those are the rules that govern question tags and if followed well, the learners will not heve any problems with question tags.
Exercise 8
Supply the appropriate question tags in the following sentences.
1. The marriage caused rupture in her relationship with her mother,.
. 4. The Prime Minister must take a firm stand against extremist in his party,.
. 6. The amendments will strengthen the bill,.
7. The new tax is tantamount to stealing form the poor,.
8. Please send all your remarks to Prof Kibwana as soon as possible,.
. 9. She raised the gun and pulled the trigger,.
10. We need to learn to prioritize,.
11. Get out of this room now,.
12. We’ve made a reservation for next week,.
13. Thy couldn’t conceal the secret any more
. 14. We shall not accept anything less,.
. 15. I am not a conman,
16. Jonny wanted to pursue a career in theatre,.
17. Sharon’s parents claim that the house is legally theirs,.
18. I haven’t told you my name,.
19. Came and visit us tomorrow,.
20. Time will tell whether he made the right choice,.
Answers to Chapter Four
Exercise 1 1. A huge storm was coming.– sentence
2. Behind the wattle tree- sentence fragment
3. After the earthquake – sentence fragment
4. The wind broke several houses.– sentence
5. Surprised by a loud noise – sentence fragment
6. Winds of high speed – sentence fragment
7. Rescue workers arrived. – sentence
8. From different parts of the world – sentence fragment
9. Many people were injured. – sentence
10. In the weeks after the earthquake – sentence fragment
Exercise 2
1. pop music – object
2. sweetly – adverb
3. very quietly – adverbial phrase
4. that book – object, three times – adverbial phrase
5. to the bank- adverbial phrase
6. her – indirect object, a present – direct object
7. bitterly – adverb
8. on his heels – adverbial phrase
9. a list of the items to buy – object
10. help – object
Exercise 3
1. a German citizen – subject complement
2. a very arrogant lady – subject complement
3. tired – subject complement
4. green – object complement
5. the queen – object complement
6. stealing the mango – participial complement
7. senseless – object complement
8. a kind person – subject complement
9. crying – participial complement
10. trembling – participial complement
Exercise 4
1. Simple sentence
2. Compound sentence
3. Compound sentence
4. Complex – whoever broke the mirror – noun clause
5. Simple sentence
6. Complex sentence – whom I met – adjectival clause
7. Complex sentence – who stole the cow – adjectival clause
8. Simple sentence
9. Complex sentence – as though it affects their lives – adverbial clause
10. Complex sentence - when people felt helpless about the world around them – adverbial clause.
11. Complex sentence – that was designed for skiing – adjectival clause
12. Simple sentence
13. Simple sentence
14. Complex sentence – because my dog loves crusts – adverbial clause
15. Complex sentence – whenever lazy students whine – adverbial clause
16. Complex sentence – whom Mrs.
Ndegwa hit in the head with pieces of chalk – adjectival clause
17. Complex sentence – who loves bread crusts – adjectival clause
18. Complex sentence – that drinks too much milk – adjectival clause
19. Complex sentence – what Aunt Lucy adds to her stew – noun clause
20. Compound sentence
Answers to Exercise 5
1. Declarative 11. Declarative
2. Imperative 12. Imperative/conditional
3. Exclamatory 13. Interrogative
4. Conditional 14. Interrogative
5. Interrogative 15. Declarative
6. Exclamatory 16. Exclamatory
7. Exclamatory 17. Conditional
8. Declarative 18. Imperative
9. Imperative 19. Declarative
10. Conditional 20.
Exclamatory
Chapter Five
Capitalization and Punctuation
(A) Capitalization
Capitalization is the writing of a word with its first letter as an upper case and the remaining letters in lower case.
The following are the cases when capitalization is used: (A) Abbreviations
Abbreviations begin with a capital letter.
(i) Titles of persons
Examples:
Prof.George Saitoti Mr. Stephen Kiama
Dr.Ephantus Maree Mrs.Teresa Ndegwa
Lt.James Conary Ms.Jacinta Atieno
Note that all the above abbreviations end with a period.
Miss is not an abbreviation, so it doesn’t end with a period.
(ii) Words used as addresses
Examples:
St. (street) Blvd. (Boulevard)
Ave.(Avenue Rte. (Route)
Rd. (Road) Apt. (Apartment)
(iii) Words used in businesses
Examples:
Co. (Company) Inc. (Incorporation)
Corp. (Corporation) Ltd.
(Limited)
(iv) Some abbreviations are written in all capital letters, with a letter standing for each important word.
Examples:
P.O.(Post Office) USA (United States of America)
P.D. (Police Department) E.A.(East Africa)
(v) Initials of names of persons Examples:
E.W. Gichimu D.M. Weyama
W.W. Muriithi Everlyne A. Kira
B) Titles of books, newspapers, magazines, TV shows and movies.
Examples:
The Minister’s Daughter (book) Tahidi High (TV show)
The Daily Nation( newspaper) Harry Potter (movie)
Drum Magazine (magazine) The Day of the Jackal (book)
Capitalize the first and last words only.
Do not capitalize little words such as a, an, the, but, as, if, and, or, nor etc.
(C)Titles of shorts stories, songs, articles, book chapters and most poems.
Examples:
Half a Day (short story)
Kigeugeu (song)
Three Days on Mt.
Kenya (short story)
The Noun Clauses (chapter in a book)
Grass Will Grow (a poem)
(E) Religious names and terms
Examples:
God Allah Jesus the Bible the Koran
Do not capitalize the words god and goddess when they refer to mythological deities.
(F) Major words in geographical names
Examples:
Continents – Africa, Asia, Europe, Australia Water bodies – the Indian Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, the Nile River, River Tana, Lake Victoria.
Landforms – the Rocky Mountains, the Aberdares Mountains, the Rift Valley, the Sahara Desert.
Political Units – the Kirinyaga County, the Central Province, Inoi Sub-location.
Public Areas – Nairobi National Park, Wajee Nature Park.
Roads and Highways – Jogoo Road, Kenyatta Avenue, Uganda Road.
(G) Names of organisations and institutions
Examples:
Kianjege West Secondary School, United Nations, University of Nairobi, Nairobi Women’s Hospital Note that here you capitalize only the important words.
Do not capitalize such words such as a, in, and of.
Do not capitalize such words as school, college, church and hospital when they are not used as parts of names.
Example: There will be a beauty contest at school.
(H) Months, days and holidays
Examples:
June Labour Day
Tuesday December
Kenyatta Day Mashujaa Day
Do not capitalize names of seasons: autumn, summer, winter, spring
(I) Languages, races, nationalities and religions
Examples:
Chinese Kikuyu Christianity Caucasian
Bantu Nigerian Muslim Oriental
(J) The first word of every sentence
Example:
What an exciting day it was!
(K) The pronoun I
Example:
What should I do next?
(L) Proper Nouns
Examples: Lang’ata Cemetery Ann Pauline Nyaguthii Kangaita Women’s Group Muhigia Teachers Sacco (M) Proper Adjectives Examples:
We ate at an Italian restaurant
She is a German
(N) The first word in greetings and the closing of a letter.
Examples:
Dear Mark, Yours sincerely,
Dear Bryan, Yours faithfully,
My dear Mum, Very truly yours,
(O) Quotations
Examples:
Jamlick exclaimed, “This book would make a great movie!”
“Where,” asked the stranger, “is the post office?”
“It’s late,” Billy said.
“Let’s go home!”
(P) First word of each main topic and subtopic in an outline
Examples:
1. Parts of speech
(i) Proper nouns
Exercise 1
Correct all errors of capitalization in the following sentences.
1. this play is a revision of shakespeare’s earlier play, the merchant of venice.
2. john kiriamiti wrote my life in crime
3. i admire women who vie for parliamentary seats
4. benard mathenge and his wife have travelled to america.
5. my grandmother grew up in witemere.
6. the nile river is one of the largest rivers in africa.
7. each year tourists visit maasai mara national part.
8. the tv show papa shirandula has attracted many viewers.
9. uganda and kenya have signed an agreement over the ownership of migingo islands.
10. our country got it’s independence in december 1963. 11. on christmas day, all my relatives gathered at my home.
12. waiyaki is a fictional character in ngugi wa thiongo’s novel, the river between.
13. the city of mombasa gets its water from river tana.
14. i would like to become a famous writer like sydney sheldon.
15. they captured the stark beauty of hell’s gate national park in their movie.
(B) Punctuation
Punctuation is the system of symbols that we use to separate sentences and parts of sentences, and to make their meaning clear.
Each symbol is called a punctuation mark.
For example (.
, ! - : etc) Punctuation marks can be grouped into:
(i) End marks
(ii) The comma
(iii) The semicolon and the colon
(iv) The hyphen
(v) The apostrophe
(vi) Quotation mark
(i) End Marks
There are three kinds of end marks: the full stop (.
), the question mark (?), and the exclamation mark (!).
End marks show where sentences end.
(a) The full stop (.)
A full stop is used to end a complete sentence.
We use a full stop to end:
The highest skyscraper in Nairobi is Times Tower.
Example:
Please climb the stairs carefully.
Note: An imperative sentence is followed by an exclamation mark when it expresses a strong emotion.
Example: Be careful!
Example:
The naughty boy wanted to know why there was no mid-term break.
Other uses of the full stop
Full stops are also used:
L.L.Coo J. Mr. Sammy Njagi 11:00 A.M.
Sept. Wed.
2hr.12min Note that some abbreviations do not require full stops:
Examples:
M (metres) FM (frequency modulation) Km kilometres)
Examples:
Outline List 1.Parts of speech 1. Water – borne diseases
A.
Nouns 2. Air-borne disease
1.Types of nouns 3. Sexually – transmitted diseases
2. Uses of nouns 4. Skin diseases
B.
Verbs 5. Hereditary diseases
1. Types of verbs 6. Lifestyle diseases
2. Uses of verbs 7. Infectious diseases
$ 25.65 165.42 25.3%
(b) The question mark (?)
The question mark is used at the end of an interrogative sentence (a sentence that asks a question).
Examples:
When was the Times Tower built?
Who built it?
(c)The Exclamation mark (!)
The exclamation mark is used at the end of the exclamatory sentence and after an interjection.
(An exclamatory sentence expresses strong feeling, emotion or emphasis.
An interjection is a word or group of words that expresses strong feelings).
Examples:
Exclamatory sentence: Oh, what a tall building it is! Interjections: Superb! Fantastic! Impressive! An exclamation mark can also be used at the end of an imperative sentence that expresses strong feeling.
Example:
Sit! And stay in that chair if you know what’s good for you!
(ii) The comma
There are a number of uses of the comma in English.
A comma generally tells the reader where to pause.
They are used:
Examples:
Nouns: John, Jim, Jack walk to school everyday.
Verbs: He located, patched, and sealed the leak in the tyre.
Adverbs: She walked quickly, steadily, and calmly.
Prepositional phrases: He walked through the park, over the bridge, and onto the streets.
Independent clauses: The match was over, the crowd cheered, and Barcelona received the first- place trophy.
Adjectives: The fresh, ripe fruit was placed in a bowl.
Note in the above examples that a comma must be used just before the conjunction.
Marto photographed the accident scene, and he sold the pictures to the newspaper.
Example:
Would she be a lawyer, or would she be a doctor?
Note: A comma is not required in very short compound sentence in which the parts are joined by and.
However, always use a comma before the conjunctions but and or.
Examples:
Marto photographed the accident scene and Toni reported it.
Marto photographed the accident scene, but Toni reported it.
Note also: A comma is not required before the conjunction that joins the parts of a compound verb unless there are more than two parts.
Examples:
Mary entered and won the beauty contest.
That camera focuses, flashes, and rewinds automatically.
A comma is used to separate a special element from the rest of the sentence.
Examples:
Word: Cautiously, he entered the building
Phrase: After his failure, he disappeared from the public scene.
Clause: Because he had practised daily, he presented his new song perfectly.
Note: If the pause after a short introductory element is very brief, you may omit the comma.
Examples:
At first he was unsure of his singing ability.
Finally it was his turn.
Commas are also used after introductory words such as yes, no, oh and well when they begin a sentence.
Examples:
Well, it’s just too cold out there.
No, it isn’t seven yet.
Oh, you have spilled the milk.
The commas are used before and after the interrupter to indicate pauses.
Examples:
I didn’t expect, however, to lose the job.
So many people, assumed, sing as well as he does.
He was chosen, nevertheless, as the new band leader.
Yes, Kamau, you can borrow my book.
Serah, do you know where I kept my phone?
How is your leg, grandpa?
Jackson said, “After my injury I had to learn to walk again.
” “The therapists urged me to keep trying,” he continued.
If the speech tag interrupts the spoken words commas are used after the last word of the first part of the spoken words and after the last word in the speech tag.
Example:
“After a while,” he added, “I was walking without a cane”.
Note: When a sentence is indirect or reported, no commas are used.
Example:
He added that after a while he was walking without a cane.
Examples:
July 3, 1965 December 12, 2010
Place a comma between the name of the town or city and the name of the state, district, or country.
Examples:
Kibingoti, Kirinyaga County Mombasa, Kenya
Examples: Dear Rose, Yours sincerely,
(iii) The semicolon (;) and the colon(:)
(a) The semicolon (;)
The semicolon is used:
Example: Mountain climbing is exciting; it can also be dangerous.
Note that the semicolon replaces the comma and the coordinating conjunction.
Conjunctions that are commonly replaced by semicolons are and, but, or, for, and nor.
Example: The competition takes place in July; however, I prefer August.
Example: Last year I flew to Johannesburg, South Africa; Cairo, Egypt; and Kingston, Jamaica.
(iv) The colon (:)
The colon is used:
My school bag contains the following items: exercise books, text books, pencils, pens, a geometrical set, and a packet of crayons.
Dear Mr. Mututho:
Examples:
9:00 A.M.
6:00 P.M. Exodus 2:1-3
(v) The Hyphen (-)
The hyphen is used:
Note that only words with two or more syllables may be divided at the end of a line and words should be divided only between syllables.
Example:
When walking along the streets of Naivasha Town, he met his friend, Waina- ina.
Never divide a word of one syllable and do not divide words to leave a single letter at the end or beginning of a line.
InCorrect:a-ttraction
Correct: attra-ction.
Examples:
Samuel Wanjiru was a world-famous athlete.
She is my sister-in-law.
Examples:
seventy-three relatives one-quarter full
(vi) The Apostrophe (’)
The apostrophe is used:
Add an apostrophe and an s.
Examples:
the baby’s cot James’s car Joseph’s radio
Examples: children’s men’s women’s
Examples:
tricksters’ tenants’
Use an apostrophe and an s.
Examples:
everybody’s somebody’s nobody’s
Note: Never use an apostrophe with a possessive pronoun like our, yours, hers, theirs.
Show possession in the last word only
Example:
the United Nations’ brochure
Show possession in the last word only.
Example:
My mother-in-law’s photograph album
Show possession in the last word only.
Example:
Peter and Patrick’s Limousine
Examples: she’s = she is aren’t = are not I’m = I am it’s = It is isn’t = is not we’ll = we will can’t = cannot won’t = will not they’ve = they have
Examples:
The tribal clashes of ’08 (the tribal clashes of 2008)
The’82 coup attempt (the 1982 coup attempt)
(vii) Quotation Marks (“ “)
The quotation marks are used:
Indirect sentences need no quotation marks.
Example:
Direct speech: The presidential candidate promised, “Creating new jobs for the youths will be my first priority.
” Indirect speech: The presidential candidate promised that creating new jobs would be his first priority.
Note:
(i) Always begin a direct quotation with a capital letter.
Example:
The minister said, “You must conserve our environment.
” (ii) When the spoken words are divided by the speech tag, begin the second part of the quotation with a small letter.
Example:
“Bring me the money,” said the moneylender, “before the end of the day.
” If the second part of the quotation is a complete sentence, the first word of this sentence is capitalized.
Example: “I am scared,” said the borrower.
“That moneylender is a brute.
” (iii) Place commas and fullstops inside quotation marks
Place semicolons and colons outside quotation marks.
Examples:
“Last month,” the borrower explained, “I borrowed some money from the moneylender.
” Carol said to the borrower, “And you refused to repay back on time”; however, the borrower did not agree.
These candidates were suggested in the article “Our Country’s Future”: Raila Odinga, Uhuru Kenyatta, William Ruto, and Martha Karua.
(iv) Place question marks and exclamation marks inside quotation marks if they belong to the quotation.
Place them outside if they do not belong to the quotation.
Examples:
Carol asked, “How much money did you borrow?”
Did the borrower say, “I can’t remember”?
“You are a fool!” exclaimed Carol.
(v) Use single quotation marks to enclose a title or quotation within a quotation.
Example:
“Carol heard the borrower say, ‘I can’t remember’ before she lost her temper.
” If the tile or quotation within the quotation ends the sentence, use both the single and the double quotation marks after the last word of a sentence.
Example:
“Carol heard the borrower say, ‘I can’t remember.
’” (v) In a quotation of more than one paragraph, use quotation marks at the beginning of each paragraph and the end of the final paragraph.
Exercise 1
Punctuate each of the following sentences appropriately.
1. He earned about three million dollars that year
2. You know who Jomo Kenyatta was, don’t you
3. What a wonderful and inspired leader he was
4. He was also a person who helped many people
5. Some people write stories but others write poems.
6. Try to write a concise informative and interesting letter.
7. Also make sure your letter as a heading an inside address a salutation a body a closing and your signature.
8. One of the most exciting modern developments I believe is the computer.
9. Today is July 2 2011. I will never forget this date.
10. I have lived in Sagana Kirinyaga County since 2008.
11. Try submitting your work to these Publishers Longhorn Publishers Jomo Kenyatta Foundation or Oxford University Press.
12. Remember a writing career requires the following traits confidence perseverance and a thick skin!
13. Long ago people used hand sharpened straws or reeds as pens.
14. Fountain pens were invented in our great grandparents time
15. Soft tip pens and rolling ball pens were invented twenty five years ago
16. What would you do if you couldn’t build a house for yourself
17. Youd find someone who could built It for you wouldn’t you.
18. These archives are important to modern historians research.
19. In his play shreds of tenderness, John Ruganda said people who have never lived through a coup d’etat have romantic ideas about it.
20.
Mr.Mureithi said a short letter to a friend is an insult.
Answers to Chapter Five
Exercise 1
1. This play is a revision of Shakespeare’s earlier play, The Merchant of Venice.
2. John Kiriamiti wrote My life in Crime.
3. I admire women who vie for parliamentary seats.
4. Bernard Mathenge and his wife travelled to America.
5. My grandmother grew up in Witemere.
6. The Nile River is one of the largest rivers in Africa.
7. Each year tourists visit Maasai Mara National Park.
8. The TV show Papa Shirandula has attracted many viewers.
9. Uganda and Kenya have signed an agreement over the ownership of Migingo Islands.
10. Our country got independence in December, 1963.
11. On Christmas Day, all my relatives gathered at my home.
12. Waiyaki is a fictional character in Ngugi wa Thiongo’s novel, The River Between.
13. The city of Mombasa gets its water from River Tana.
14. I would like to become a famous writer like Sidney Sheldon.
15. They captured the stark beauty of Hell’s Gate National Park in their movie.
Exercise 2
1. He earned about three million dollars that year.
2. You know who Jomo Kenyatta was, don’t you?
3. What a wonderful and inspired leader he was!
4. He was also a person who helped many people.
5. Some people write stories, but other write poems.
6. Try to write a concise, informative, and interesting letter.
7. Also make sure that your letter has a heading, an inside address, a salutation, a body, a closing, and your signature.
8. One of the most exciting modern developments, I believe, is the computer.
9. Today is July 2, 2011. I will never forget this date.
10. I have lived in Sagana, Kirinyaga County, since 2008
11. Try submitting your work to the following publishers: Longhorn Publishers, Jomo Kenyatta Foundation, or Oxford University Press.
12. Remember, a writing career requires the following traits: confidence, perseverance, and a thick skin!
13. Long ago, people used hand – sharpened straws and reeds as pens.
14. Fountain pens were invented in our great – grandparents’ time.
15. Soft-tip pens and rolling-ball pens were invented twenty-five years ago.
16. What would you do if you couldn’t build a house for yourself?
17. You’d find someone who could build it for you, wouldn’t you?
18. These archives are important to modern historians’ research.
19. In his play Shreds of Tenderness, John Ruganda said, “People who have never lived through a coup d’etat have romantic ideas about it.
” 20. Mr.Mureithi said, “A short letter to a friend is an insult.
