Four Functions of Sentences
The function of Sentences: Every sentence does one of four functions. It must make a statement, issue a command, ask a question, or exclaim an emotion or idea. Because of this, we can understand sentence types by analyzing the function that the sentence does. Sentences are of four kinds according to their functions:
1. Declarative (statement)
2. Interrogative (questions)
3. Imperative (commands)
4. Exclamatory (exclamations)
5. Optative
1. Declarative (statement)
Declarative sentences make statements. Most sentences are declarative. The structure of a statement is Subject + verb + other words.
Examples:
1. She likes pizza.
2. This is an easy task.
3. He plays hockey.
4. Eva is learning grammar.
In each of these sentences, the speaker makes a declaration. So, they are declarative sentences.
Kinds of Declarative Statements There are three kinds of declarative statements:
1. Affirmative
2. Negative
3. Emphatic
Formation of Affirmative, Negative and Emphatic Statements:
Negative and emphatic statements are formed by placing auxiliary verbs before the main verb.
1. Structure of Negative Statements: Subject + auxiliary verb + not + extensions.
2. Structure of Emphatic Statements: Subject + do/did/does + extensions.
Affirmative | Negative | Emphatic |
I like fish | I do not like fish. | I do like fish. |
Peter loves her. | Peter does not love her. | Peter does love her. |
He told a lie. | He did not tell a lie. | He did tell a lie. |
She has (got) a car | She has not got a car | She does have a car.
|
2. Interrogative Sentences
Interrogative sentences ask questions. Because of this, all interrogative sentences end with a question mark. Structure of Interrogative Sentence:
i. ‘Wh’ word (Where/When/What/Who/Which/How) + auxiliary verb + subject + main verb + question mark
ii. Auxiliary verb + subject + main verb + extension + question mark
Example:
a. Where are you going?
b. Do you want to study?
In each case, the speaker requests information. Because of this, both sentences end with a question marks.
Formation of Interrogatives
i) A statement with an auxiliary verb is made interrogative by the inversion of the subject and verb:
Statement
| Questions
|
She is tall
| Is she tall?
|
They are students. | Are they students?
|
He can do this sum.
| Can he do this sum?
|
She should work hard.
| Should she work hard?
|
ii) A statement with the main verb is made interrogative by introducing an auxiliary verb and placing it at the beginning of the question:
Statement | Questions |
They play football on Fridays. | Do they play football on Fridays? |
She helps her always. | Does She help her always? |
He can do this sum. | Can he do this sum? |
Formation of Negative Interrogatives
A positive interrogative is made a negative interrogative by placing not after the subject: Do they not play tennis? However, if the contracted form n’t is used, it goes with the auxiliary which precedes the subject:
Interrogative | Negative interrogative |
Do they play football? | Don’t they play football? / Do they not play football? |
Did he win the match? | Didn’t he win the match? |
Kinds of Questions: There are six kinds of questions:
i) Yes/no questions
ii) Alternative questions
iii) Question word questions
iv) Rhetorical questions
v) Emphatic questions
vi) Question tags
i.Yes/no questions
They begin with auxiliary verbs and require short answers that are yes or no. The structure of the short answer is:
a. Yes + subject (pronoun) + auxiliary verb
b. No + subject (pronoun) + auxiliary verb + n’t
Questions | Short Answers (Affirmative) | Short Answers (Negative) |
Is Elizabeth a doctor? | Yes, she is. | No, she isn’t |
N.B. In a short answer the subject is always a pronoun, not a noun.
ii. Alternative Questions
In alternative questions, there is more than one question joined by ‘or’: Do you like Math or Science? Each of the questions requires a full answer:
Questions Answers
Has he got a car or a scooter? I have a car.
iii. Question-word questions
Question-word questions begin with wh-words or how: who/whose/which/what/when/where/why/and how Question-word questions require full answers and seek fresh information.
Questions Answers
How are you feeling now? I am feeling fine.
iv. Rhetorical Questions
A rhetorical question which may be affirmative or negative is a question only in form but a statement in sense. It looks like a question but it is not asked to gain information.
Examples:
1. Can a dog fly?
2. Should they tell a lie?
3. Isn’t the earth clam?
v. Emphatic Questions
Emphatic questions are used in colloquial style to express anger, surprise, etc. An emphatic question is formed in two ways:
1. Interrogative pronoun/interrogative adverb + ever
2. Interrogative pronoun/interrogative adverb + on the earth/in the world/the devil/the hell etc.
Examples:
a. Who the ever is she?
b. Who the witch is she?
3. Imperative Sentences
4. Exclamatory Sentences
Imperative sentences issue commands/orders/requests/advice/suggestions. In most cases, imperative sentences have no visible subject; rather, the subject is implied. Most imperative sentences end with a period, but they may also end with an exclamation point. Most importantly, such sentences start with a verb.
Example:
a. Complete your homework.
b. Don’t do the mistake.
Kinds of Imperative Sentences There are three kinds of imperative sentences:
1. Affirmative Imperative
2. Negative Imperative
3. Emphatic Imperative
Affirmative Imperative | Negative Imperative | Emphatic Imperative |
Come in | Don’t come in | Do come in. |
Please switch on the light. | Please don’t switch on the light. | Please do switch on the light. |
Exclamatory sentences express excitement or emotion. Writers express the exclamatory tone when they end their sentences in exclamation points. Every exclamatory sentence should end in an exclamation point.
Examples: That was amazing!
In each case, the sentence expresses an emotion. Exclamation point signal to readers that the speaker is yelling or exclaiming.
Structures: i) What + a/an + noun + subject + verb
Example: What a place it is! / What a filthy place it is?
‘What’ takes a noun: Example: What a friend she is!
Note: ‘What’ can take an adjective only when it modifies a noun: Example: What a moving presentation!
What + noun without an adjective is sometimes used as a derogatory sense to express dislike/ disapproval:
Example:
1. What a woman she is! (She is a nasty/peculiar woman.)
2. What an idea it is! (It is an absurd/silly idea.)
Sometimes to express approval, an adjective is necessary:
Example:
1. They went to Singapore on holiday.
2. What a fine day it was! (not, What a holiday it was!)
3. It is so hot, so cool today.
4. What nice weather they are having! (Not, What weather they are having!
ii) How + Adjective/Adverb + subject + main verb
Examples:
1. How tall he is!
2. How sweetly Eva sings!
iii) O that + subject + were + extension
Examples:
O that I were a king!
iv) Alas that + subject + main verb + extension
Examples: Alas, he died so young!
v) Would that + subject + had + v3 (past participle form of verb) + extension
Examples: Would that I had known her!
vi) Noun + and + a + adjective
Examples: Eva's husband and a coward!
viii) Short cries/incomplete sentences
Examples:
1. What a girlfriend! / What an idea!
2. How nice of Zara! / How absurd!
3. Excellent! Fire! Murder! Oh/Alas!
Note: How takes an adjective/adverb, not a noun:
Examples:
1. How unkind he is!
2. How fast he runs!
How is used to heighten the effect of an adjective or adverb, so it is a substitute for the intensifying adverb ‘very’:
Examples:
1. How tall he is! (he is very tall.)
2. How hard she works! (She works very hard.)
Three Structures of Sentences
The sentences are divided into three (3) categories depending on the number and types of finite clauses.
1. Simple Sentence
2. Compound Sentence
3. Complex Sentence
1. Simple Sentence
The sentence contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought.
Example:
Peter (subject) plays (verb) football every afternoon.
In this type of sentence, there is only 1 independent clause and might be multiple dependent clauses joined by non-finite verbs (gerund, participle, infinitive). But there can be only one finite verb.
Example:
1. While going (non-finite verb: present participle) there, he (subject) met (finite verb) her.
2. Despite being (non-finite verb: present participle) ill, he attended (finite verb) the meeting.
There is no use of conjunction (to join clauses) in simple sentences. But joining words can be used by ‘and’.
Example:
1. Bread and butter are my breakfast.
2. Peter and John are two friends.
2. Compound Sentence
In this type of sentence, there are multiple independent clauses and no dependent clause. All the clauses are joined together by coordinating conjunctions. Such sentences have at least 2 finite verbs and 2 subjects.
List of Coordinating Conjunctions Coordinating conjunctions connect two equal parts of a sentence. Here are they: And/but/nor/or/so/yet.
Examples:
1. I (subject) tried (finite verb) to speak Italian, and my friend (subject) tried (finite verb) to speak English.
2. Rickey (subject) played (finite verb) football, so Eva (subject) went (finite verb) for shopping.
3. Complex Sentence
This type of sentence consists of at least one independent clause and one dependent clause. There are 2 finite verbs joined by subordinating conjunctions. Subordinate conjunctions connect two unequal parts, e.g., dependent and independent clauses.
Here is the list of subordinating conjunctions: Since/as/when/though/although/so that/whenever/ because/than/whereas/that/wherever/that/whether/if/though/which/till/while/unless/who/until/why/how/ what.
Examples:
1. When (sub-ordinator) he (subject) handed (finite verb) in his homework, he (subject) forgot (finite verb) to give the teacher the last page.
2. The teacher (subject) returned (finite verb) the homework after (sub-ordinator) she (subject) noticed (finite verb) the error.
3. The students (subject) are studying (finite verb) because (sub-ordinator) they (subject) have (finite verb) a test tomorrow.
4. Rocky (subject) and Rose (subject) went (finite verb) to the movies after (sub-ordinator) they (subject) finished (verb) studying.
Complex sentences with relative pronouns as sub-ordinators/subordinating conjunctions:
Example:
1. The man (subject), who (subordinate) my father (subject) talked to, sells (verb) smartphone.
2. The book (subject) that (subordinate) Rose (subject) read is (verb) on the shelf.
3. The town (subject) where (subordinate) I (subject) grew up is (verb) in England.
