Nouns: Functions, Formation and Classification

THE NOUN

§ 1. The noun denotes thingness in a general sense. Thus nouns name things/objects (book, table), living beings (people, animals, insects) (man, tiger, eagle, ant, bee), places (valley, London, England), materials (iron, oil), processes (life, laughter), states (sleep, consciousness), abstract notions (socialism, joy, happiness) and qualities (kindness, courage).

 

Semantic characteristics

§ 2. Semantically all nouns fall into proper nouns (имена собственные) and common nouns (имена нарицательные).

§ 3. Proper nouns are geographical names (New York, the Thames, Asia, the Alps), names of individual (unique) persons and titles (John, Byron, Brown, the Pope, the Duke of Norfolk), names of the months and the days of the week (January, Sunday), names of planets (the Moon, the Sun, the Earth), names of ships, hotels, clubs (Shepherd's Hotel), of buildings, streets, parks, bridges (Buckingham Palace, Trafalgar Square, Regent Street, Charing Cross Road, Piccadilly Circus, Kensington Gardens, Hyde Park, Waterloo Bridge), of institutions, organizations, magazines and newspapers (the United Nations, the New Times, the Guardian). They are written with capitals.

 

§ 4. Common nouns can be classified into nouns denoting objects that can be counted and those that cannot. So there are count and non-count and collective common nouns. The former are inflected for number, whereas the latter are not. Further distinction is into concrete nouns, abstract nouns and nouns of material.

Semantic classification of English nouns is shown in the following scheme:

Concrete nouns semantically fall into three subclasses.

 

1.   Nouns denoting living beings - persons and animals:

boy, girl, dog, cat.

2.   Nouns denoting inanimate objects:

table, chair.

 

3.   Collective (собирательные) nouns denoting a group of persons:

family, crowd.

 

There are some nouns which may be classified both as count and non-count. They often have considerable difference in meaning in the two classes.

Countable nouns	Uncountable nouns
He used to read an evening paper. (газета) She was a beauty. (красавица)	They wrapped up the present in brown paper.(бумага) This is a poem of great beauty. (красота)
They hoped to have pleasant experiences. (случай из жизни)	He has a great deal of experience. (опыт)
I saw him in a group of youths.(молодые люди)	Vie was speaking with the enthusiasm of youth. (молодежь)
There was a pile of bricks near the house. (кирпичи)	His house was made of brick. (кирпич как строительный материал)
He runs a small business. (торговое предприятие)	He enjoys doing business. (дело, бизнес)
Becky Sharp is a character in Vanity Fair. (героиня романа)	The king was a man of good and noble character. (характер)
It is sometimes difficult to make a decision. (решение)	There was great decision in his words. (решительность)
Have you got a steam iron? (утюг)	The bridge is made of iron. (железо как материал)
She gave the child an ice. (мороженое)	There was ice on the river. (лед)
There is a little lamb in the yard. (ягненок)	This is a good piece of lamb. (мясо ягненка)
A light was still burning in the bedroom. (лампочка, люстра)	The light was beginning to fail. (свет)
You can stay with us. There is a spare room. (комната)	You can‘t sit here. There is no room. (место, пространство)
I‘ve been to France many times. (раз)	I can‘t come today. I have no time. (время)

 

Sometimes abstract nouns which are uncountable in their general use can be used with the indefinite article when they are referred to as something specific. In such cases the noun is modified by a descriptive attribute which brings out a special aspect of the notion expressed by the noun. Compare:

Uncountable (general use)	Specific use
He was filled with anger at the way he had been treated.	A dull anger rose in his chest.
Education should be free.	He had a good education.
His knowledge about painting and music was excellent.	He has a wide knowledge of music and painting.
She needs rest after the illness.	She had a short rest after lunch.
The photo brought up memories tinged with sadness.	All of a sudden he felt a deep sadness.
He is in hospital suffering from shock.	His friend‘s death was a great shock to him.

Nouns denoting drinks and beverages are uncountable when they are thought of as substances. But if we mean a cup/a glass/a portion of something they become countable and can be used with a/an. Compare: Coffee is expensive these days. He drank a coffee and left the café. He asked for two coffees.

Originally countable nouns can sometimes become uncountable when they are referred to as

substances. Compare:

Countable (one or more than one)	Uncountable (substance, material)
Vicky is eating an apple.	Is there apple in the pie?
At dinner he ate a whole chicken.	I don‘t like chicken very much.
I had an egg for breakfast.	There is egg on your face.
A lobster has a hard shell and eight legs.	Lobster is eaten after boiling when it turns red.
A mink is a small animal with a long body and short legs.	Mink is used for making expensive ladies‘ coats.

 

Morphological composition

 

§ 5. According to their morphological composition nouns can be divided into simple, derived, and compound.

Simple nouns consist of only one root-morpheme: dog, chair, room, roof, leaf.

Derived nouns (derivatives) are composed of one root-morpheme and one or more derivational morphemes (prefixes or suffixes).

The main noun-forming suffixes are those forming abstract nouns and those forming concrete, personal nouns.

 

Abstract nouns

Concrete nouns

-age: leakage, -al: betrayal, portrayal, refusal -ancy/-ency: vacancy, tendency -dom:freedom kingdom -hood: brotherhood, childhood -ing: meaning, cleaning -ion/-sion/-tion/-ation: operation, tension, examination -ism: darvinism, patriotism -ment: agreement, unemployment -ness: darkness, weakness -ship: friendship, membership -ty: cruelty, sanity, banality -th: growth, strength -y: difficulty, honesty

-(i)an: physician, Parisian, republican -ant/-ent: assistant, student, informant -arian: vegetarian -ее: refugee, employee, payee -er: teacher, worker, singer -ist: socialist, artist -or: visitor, actor -let: booklet, leaflet -ess: actress, tigress, waitress -ine: heroine -ette: usherette The four suffixes -ess, -ine, -ette are feminine.

 

Compound nouns consist of at least two stems. The meaning of a compound is not a mere sum of its elements. The main types of compound nouns are:

noun stem + noun stem:	seaman (моряк), airmail (авиапочта)
adjective stem + noun stem:	bluebell (колокольчик), blackbird (черный дрозд)
verb stem + noun stem:	pickpocket (карманный вор)
gerund + noun stem:	looking-glass (зеркало),

dancing-hall (танцевальный зал)
noun stem + prepositions + noun stem:		father-in-law (свекр, тесть) mother-in-law (свекровь, теща) man-of-war (военный корабль)
substantivised phrases:	forget-me-not (незабудка), pick-me-up (тонизирующий напиток)

 

Morphological characteristics

 

§ 6. Morphologically nouns are characterized by the grammatical categories of number and case.

Gender does not find regular morphological expression. The distinction of male, female, and neuter may correspond to the lexical meaning of the noun:

 

masculine (names of male beings)	- boy, man, husband, bachelor, ox, cock;
feminine (names of female beings)	- girl, woman, wife, maid, cow, hen;
neuter               (names of inanimate objects)	- table, house.

 

The distinction may be also expressed by word-formation of different types:

 

a)   feminine suffixes

-ess (actress, hostess, poetess, tigress),

-ine (heroine),

-ette (usherette);

 

b)   compounds of different patterns:

 

noun + noun stem		pronoun + noun stem
Tom-cat doctor dog-otter male-frog cock- pheasant	-  Tabby-cat -  woman-doctor -  bitch-otter -  female-frog -  hen-pheasant	he-wolf he-cousin	-  she-wolf -  she-cousin

 

There are also some traditional associations of certain nouns with gender. These are apparent in the use of personal or possessive pronouns:

 

a)  moon and earth are referred to as feminine, sun as masculine:

 

It is pleasant to watch the sun in his chariot of gold and the moon in her chariot of pearl. At first the earth was large, but every moment she grew smaller.

 

b)  the names of vessels (ship, boat, steamer, ice-breaker, cruiser, etc.) are referred to as feminine:

 

The new ice-breaker has started on her maiden voyage.

She is equipped with up-to-date machinery.

c)  the names of vehicles (car, carriage, coach) may also be referred to as feminine, especially by their

owners, to express their affectionate attitude to these objects:

 She is a fine car.

 

d)  the names of countries, if the country is not considered as a mere geographical territory, are referred to as feminine:

England is proud of her poets.

 

But: If the name of the country is meant as a geographical one the pronoun it is used. Iceland

is an island, it is washed on three sides by the Atlantic Ocean.

 

The category of number

 

§ 7. English nouns that are inflected for number (count nouns) have singular and plural forms.

Singular denotes one, plural denotes more than one. Most count nouns are variable and can occur with either singular or plural number. In Modern English the singular form of a noun is unmarked (zero). The plural form is marked by the inflexion -(e)s. The spelling and the pronunciation of the plural morpheme vary.

 

§ 8. Regular plurals

Nouns ending in vowels and voiced consonants have the plural ending pronouced as [z]: bee - bees [bi:z], dog - dogs [dɔgz]

 

Nouns ending in voiceless consonants have a voiceless ending [s]: book - books [buks]

 

The plural of some groups of nouns is made by adding –es:

1.   Nouns ending in -s, -sh, -ss, -ch, -x, -z, (sibilants) have the ending [iz]:

bus - buses

actress - actresses ['æktrɪsɪz] bush - bushes ['bu∫ɪz]

watch - watches ['wot∫ɪz] box - boxes ['boksɪz] buzz – buzzes

Note 1: Nouns ending in a single –z have plural in –zzes (e.g. quiz – quizzes).

Note 2: If the pronunciation of –ch is [k] the ending –s is added (e.g. patriarch - patriarchs).

 

2.   Nouns ending in consonant+o have the ending [z]:

hero - heroes ['hɪǝrouz] echo – echoes

embargo – embargoes potato – potatoes tomato - tomatoes

However, some nouns ending in consonant+o have plural in –s. These are:

a)  if the singular form ends in a vowel - bamboos, embryos, folios, kangaroos, radios, studios, zoos;

b)   in proper names - Romeos, Eskimos, Filipinos;

c)   in abbreviations, kilos (kilogram), photos (photograph), autos (automobile);

d)   also in some borrowed words and words denoting musical terms and Italian musical terms: pianos, concertos, sopranos, dynamos, quartos, solos, tangos, tobaccos.

 

3.   Nouns ending in consonant+y (-by, -dy, -ry, -ty). Besides, the plural forms of such nouns have „i‟ instead of „y‟ in their spelling.

sky- skies [skaiz]

baby – babies lady – ladies party - parties

 

But the letter -y remains unchanged -ys:

a)  if the singular ends in vowel+y:

days (except in nouns ending in -quy: soliloquy - soliloquies)

boy – boys donkey donkeys key - keys

b)  in proper names:

the two Germanys, the Kennedys, the Gatsbys, two very cold Januarys in a row, two Marys

c)  in compounds:

stand-bys, lay-bys.

 

4.   Some nouns ending in -f(e) form their plural changing -f(e) into -v(e): the ending in this case is pronounced [z]:

calf - calves elf - elves half - halves knife - knives leaf - leaves

life - lives loaf - loaves self - selves sheaf - sheaves (снопы) shelf – shelves

thief - thieves wife - wives wolf - wolves

 

Other nouns ending in -f(e) have the plural inflexion -s in the regular way:

Belief - beliefs chief – chiefs cliff – cliffs

grief - griefs; the ending is pronounced [s]

gulf – gulfs proof – proofs roof - roofs safe – safes

 

In a few cases both -fs and -ves forms are possible: Handkerchief – handkerchiefs/handkerchieves scarf - scarfs/scarves

dwarf - dwarfs/dwarves hoof - hoofs/hooves wharf – wharfs/wharves

5.   The plural of abbreviations is sometimes formed in spelling by doubling a letter:

 

p. (page) Mr (Mister) Co. (Company)

- pp. -  Messrs ['mesǝz] -  Co.s [kouz]

 

In a phrase like "Miss Brown" two different forms are used for the plural. We may either say "the Miss Browns" or "the Misses Brown", the latter being generally considered more correct.

 

6.   We may sometimes see plurals formed with an apostrophe. It happens:

a)  after letters of the alphabet

Watch your p’s and q’s. She spelt “necessary” with two c’s.

b)  with dates and abbreviations

Formal written speech	Informal writing
The 1990s, the 1960s VIPs, MPs, OAPs	1960‘s, 1990‘s VIP‘s, MP‘s, OAP‘s

 

Irregular plurals

 

§ 9. For historical reasons certain nouns form their plural differently.

 

I.  Seven nouns distinguish plural from singular by the root vowel change:

man - men woman - women

tooth - teeth foot – feet

goose - geese mouse - mice louse - lice

Two nouns have -en to mark the plural:

ox - oxen, child - children.

 

Brother has two plural forms: brothers and brethren, the latter being used as a religious term or in elevated style to denote people of the same creed, not relations.

 

II.   With some nouns the plural is identical with the singular form:

 

a)  sheep-sheep (овца/ы); swine - swine (свинья/и); deer - deer (олень/и);

grouse - grouse (куропатка/и).

 

This sheep looks small. All those sheep are good. I bought a grouse (three grouse for dinner).

There‘re so many fish, they splinter the paddles

Note: There, are some animal names that have two plurals: fish - fish/fishes, pike - pike/pikes, trout - trout/trouts, carp –carp/carps, salmon - salmon/salmons.   The zero plural is more common to denote hunting quarries (We caught only a few fish. We caught five salmon. He shot quail (перепелок) to make money), whereas the regular plural is used to denote different individuals, species, kinds of animal, especially fish with the same name or insects or other small animals which cause disease or damage.

The plant was covered in greenfly. This animal is infected with hookworm.

There are three greenflies on my hand. Two large hookworms were found in his stomach. There were two quails for sale.

 

a)                                                  identical singular and plural forms are also typical of nationality nouns in -ese, -ss:

Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, Swiss, Vietnamese.

 

We met a Japanese. We met many Japanese on our holiday.

 

b)  some nouns in -s:

barracks – barracks (казарма) crossroads – crossroads (перекресток)

headquarters – headquarters (штабквартира) means – means (средство)

series - series (ряд, серия);

species - species (вид, порода, род)

corps [ko:] - corps [ko:z] (корпус, род войск).

 

c)   names, indicating number, such as:

 

pair, couple, dozen, score (два десятка),

stone (мера веса: 14 англ. фунтов = 6,35 кг) and

head (голова - поголовье скота)

 

have the same form for both the singular and plural when they are preceded by a numeral, that is, they

function as an indication of a kind of measure: two dozen of handkerchiefs, five dozen of eggs. The child

weighs two stone. One thousand head of cattle.

 

But when they have no number as predeterminer they take the usual plural form: dozens of times, to go in pairs.

 

4. A number of foreign (particularly Latin and Greek) nouns have retained their original plural endings.

Loans of Greek origin

 

Singular	Plural
-is [ɪs] basis crisis analysis thesis parenthesis axis hypothesis diagnosis   -on [ǝn] criterion phenomenon   -а [ǝ] miasma	-es [i:z] bases crises analyses theses parentheses axes hypotheses diagnoses   -а [ǝ] criteria phenomena   -ata [ǝtǝ] miasmata

 

Loans of Latin origin

 

-us [ǝs]     stimulus nucleus radius corpus genus   -а [ǝ] formula antenna vertebra   -um [ǝm] datum stratum erratum   -es,-ix [ɪks] index appendix matrix

-i [ai] -ога [ǝrǝ] -era [ǝrǝ] stimuli nuclei radii corpora genera   -ае [i:] formulae (or regular - formulas) antennae vertebrae   -a [ǝ] data strata errata   -ices [ɪsi;z] indices appendices matrices

[i:z] or indexes or appendixes or matzixes

 

§ 10. Plural in compound nouns

 

A compound noun consists of two or three words that function like one word. Compounds form the plural in different ways.

Normally the last word is made plural. This happens in the following types of compounds:

1.       A noun + noun combination

Boy friends, car-parks, compact discs, flower shops, match boxes, travel agents, housewives, tooth-brushes, boy-scouts, maid-servants.

2.       A gerund + noun combination

Dancing halls, driving licenses, frying pans, reading rooms, swimming pools.

3.       An adverb + noun combination

On-lookers (наблюдатель), onfalls (нападение), upshots (развязка, заключение).

4.       A verb + adverb combination or any other combination with no noun present Breakdowns (упадок сил, здоровья), break-ups (развал, распад), break-ins (кража со взломом), grown-ups (взрослый), take-in (обман), forget-me-nots (незабудка), merry-go- rounds (карусель).

 

The plural form in the first element occurs in:

1.       A noun + adverb combination

Lookers-on (наблюдатель), runners-up (участник соревнований занявший 2 место), passers- by (прохожий).

2.       A noun + noun/gerund combination with a preposition between the two elements editors-in-chief (главный редактор), mothers-in-law (теща, свекровь), commanders-in-chief (главнокомандующий), coats-of-mail (кольчуга), men-of-war (военные корабли)

 

Some compounds have the plural form both in the first and the last element:

Man/woman driver – men/women driver, man/woman student – men/women student, gentleman farmer – gentlemen farmers.

 

§ 12. Uncountable nouns used in the form of the singular

 

Nouns denoting things which have neither shape nor precise limits cannot be counted and therefore have no distinctions between the singular and plural. They are used only in the singular and called uncountables. The most common uncountable nouns of this type are those which denote:

·       Meat, fish and dairy products (bacon, beef, butter, cheese, cream, fish, ice-cream, milk, oil, poultry, yoghurt)

·       Drinks and beverages (beer, champagne, coca-cola, juice, tea)

·       Seasonings and additives (cinnamon, dressing, flavouring, mustard, pepper, salt, sugar, vinegar)

·       Bread, confectionery, pasta and some dishes (bread, broth, chocolate, jam, jelly, macaroni, porridge, salad, soup)

·       Jewelry, perfumery and cosmetics, precious stones (amber, cream, gel, lotion, nail polish, powder, shampoo)

·       Textiles and fabrics (cotton, denim, fur, leather, nylon, silk, suede, wool)

·       Materials and metals (aluminium, china, clay, copper, glass, gold, plastic, rubber, wood)

·       Liquids and gases, particles and solids (air, blood, corn, dirt, dust, fuel, hydrogen, ink, oxygen, sand, steam, water)

·       Recreation and sports, hobbies and games (badminton, boxing, hockey, jogging, swimming)

·       Some illnesses and their treatment (allergy, cancer, chicken-pox, fever, flu, ointment, pneumonia, ulcer)

·       Some kinds of plants, herbs, flowers and cereals (barley, buckwheat, grass, lilac, mint, rice, wheat)

·       Time and natural phenomena (darkness, dawn, dusk, fog, hail, heat, light, sunshine, twilight, weather, wind)

·       Abstract nouns (accommodation, advice, anger, applause, attention, business, charity, lick, research, truth, wealth)

·       Some collective nouns (baggage, crockery, cutlery, foliage, fruit, equipment, furniture, linen, money, rubbish)

·       Some proper nouns (the East Indies, the West Indies, the Hebrides, the Highlands, the Midlands, the Netherlands)

 

In some uncountable nouns the final ending –s loses the meaning of the plural inflection and the noun is treated as singular. Here belong:

·       Academic subjects ending in –ics (acoustics, economics, linguistics, mathematics, mechanics, optics, phonetics, physics, politics, statistics)

·       Sports activities and games ending in –ics, -s,- es (aerobics, athletics, billiards, dominoes, draughts, gymnastics)

·       Illnesses ending in –s (bronchitis, diabetes, measles, mumps)

!!! Note: some words ending in –ics (acoustics, economics, mechanics, phonetics, statistics) can also have plural uses in their specific reference. Compare, e.g. Acoustics is the scientific study of sound. The acoustics in the hall are very good. Mathematics is an exact science. His mathematics are weak. Statistics has always been his worst subject. Statistics are able to prove everything you want them to.

 

§ 13. Uncountable nouns used in the form of the plural

A number of uncountable nouns are used only in the form of the plural. With these nouns the plural does not indicate several separate objects but denotes a composite whole. To this group of nouns belong:

·       Garments consisting of two parts (jeans, leggings, pants, pyjamas, shorts, tights, trousers)

·       Tools and instruments consisting of two similar halves (binoculars, compasses, handcuffs, glasses, scales, scissors, spectacles)

·       Nouns with a collective meaning (abstract or concrete) (archives, ashes, authorities, belongings, clothes, congratulations, contents, customs, earnings, foundations, funds, greens, goods, looks, outskirts, races, remains, riches, savings, slums, suburbs, stairs, talks, terms, troops, tropics, wits)

 

 

§ 14. Collective nouns

 

Collective nouns are those that are singular in form but plural in meaning. Some collective nouns are uncountable in English and always take a singular form of the verb. They include: baggage, crockery, equipment, hair, jewelry, linen, money and others.

Note: If we consider each hair separately, we say ―one hair‖, ―two hairs‖.

However, there are collective nouns which although they do not have a plural form, are always plural in meaning and must be followed by a plural verb. These are: people, cattle, the clergy, the military, the police.

Some collective nouns can be used either with a singular or a plural verb. The choice depends on whether we see the group as a whole or as a group of individuals. Here belong:

Association, audience, choir, class, club, college, committee, company, council, crew, crowd, board, department, family, firm, government, group, jury, staff, team, names of football teams (Manchester United, Arsenal) and names of some specific organizations (the Bank of England, the BBC, the United Nations).

 

Singular (a group taken as a whole)	Plural (a group of individuals)= nouns of multitude
The family is united. The orchestra consists of eighty-six musicians. The committee has made its decision. The United Nations has agreed to deploy a peacekeeping force. The team is winning. The British Government is led by the Prime Minister.	The family are delighted with their presents. The orchestra don‘t know what to play. The committee usually raise their hands to vote. The United Nations are in disagreement on this issue.   The team are packing up their equipment. The British Government are developing a new policy.

 

§ 15. Ways of showing partition.

Many non-count nouns combine with a set of nouns showing some part of material or abstract notion. Here are some typical partitives for material and abstract nouns:

 

a slice of bacon a slice of cake		a piece                  a lump	of coal
a piece a loaf	of bread	a piece a lump	of sugar
a piece a stick	of chalk	a blade of grass
a piece        a bar	of chocolate	a piece                  a block	of ice
a piece        a sheet	of paper	a piece                  a strip	of land

 

a grain of rice		a piece an article	of furniture
a pile                a heap	of rubbish
		a piece of evidence a fit of passion a piece of research
a piece a word	of advice
a piece                 an item	of information, news

§ 16. In some cases there is no obvious logical reason for the assignment of various English nouns to the count or non-count class. In Russian and English the attribution of the corresponding nouns may be different. Here are some cases when the classes of nouns in English and Russian do not coincide:

English singular invariable nouns	Russian plural invariable nouns
ink cream yeast money hair fruit applause chess	чернила сливки дрожжи деньги волосы фрукты аплодисменты шахматы

 

English plural invariable nouns	Russian singular invariable nouns
sweepings clothes greens contents odds	cop одежда зелень (овощи) содержание преимущество (спортивное)

 

The category of case

 

§ 17. Case is a grammatical category which shows relation of the noun with other words in a sentence. It is expressed by the form of the noun.

English nouns have two cases: the common case and the genitive (possessive) case.

However, not all English nouns possess the category of case; there are certain nouns, mainly nouns denoting inanimate objects, which cannot be used in the genitive case.

The common case is unmarked, it has no inflexion (zero inflexion) and its meaning is very general.

The genitive case is marked by the apostrophe s („s).

 

§ 18. In writing there are two forms of the genitive: for most nouns it is ‘s (mother‟s) and for nouns ending in -s and regular plural nouns only the apostrophe (mothers‟).

In speech there are four ways of pronunciation of the genitive case.

 

1.     [z] after vowels and voiced consonants: Negro‟s, dog‟s;

2.     [s] after voiceless consonants: student‟s;

3.     [iz] after sibilants: prince‟s, judge‟s;

4.     zero endings: girls‟, boys‟.

 

The use of the genitive case and its equivalent of-phrase

 

Possessive forms are typically used with nouns denoting living creatures:

ü  personal nouns and indefinite pronouns replacing them (the doctor‟s surgery, man‟s future, father‟s tools, Alice‟s dolls, the Browns‟ house, St. Paul‟s Church, anyone‟s guess, someone‟s responsibility)

ü  collective nouns (the army‟s advance, the committee‟s decision)

ü  nouns, denoting animals (the horse‟s mane, a swallow‟s nest)

The possessive case may also be used with some groups of nouns designating non-living beings:

ü  geographical names (America‟s policy, Hong Kong‟s future, Canada‟s population)

ü  institutions, organizations (the European Economic Community‟s export)

ü  time references (an hour‟s delay, a month‟s salary, this week‟s programme, a two days‟ journey, today‟s time-table, yesterday‟s newspaper)

ü  money‘s worth (twenty dollars‟ worth of gasoline)

ü  reference to cars, planes, ships (the car‟s exhaust, the plane‟s engines, the ship‟s propeller)

ü  with the nouns world, nation, country, city, town (the world‟s top guitarists, the nation‟s wealth)

ü  with nouns denoting planets: sun, moon, earth (the sun‟s rays, this earth‟s life)

ü  with some inanimate nouns in the following set expressions (to one‟s heart‟s content (desire), at death‟s door, at arm‟s length, out of harm‟s way, a hair‟s breadth, a needle‟s eye, at a stone‟s throw, to move at a snail‟s pace, at the water‟s edge, child‟s play, at one‟s finger‟s end, at one‟s wit‟s end)

Beauty lies in lover’s eyes.	Красота в глазах влюбленного.
Don‟t sell the bear’s skin before you‟ve caught him.	Не дели шкуру неубитого медведя.
The early bird gets the late one’s breakfast.	Ранняя птичка носок прочищает, а поздняя – глаза продирает.
An Englishman’s house is his castle.	Мой дом – моя крепость.
Everybody’s business is nobody’s business.	У семи нянек дитя без глаза.
A fool’s tongue runs before his wit.	Язык мой – враг мой.
The last straw breaks the camel’s back.	Последняя капля переполняет чашу.
The way to a man’s heart is through his stomach.	Путь к сердцу мужчины лежит через его желудок.
One man’s meat is another man’s poison.	То, что одних лечит, других калечит.
One man’s fault is another man’s lesson.	На ошибках учатся.

 

With other nouns (denoting inanimate objects or abstract notions) the of + noun phrase is used:

the back of a train, the legs of a table.

 

The rules for the formation of the possessive case are the following:

1.   Singular nouns and names form the possessive case by adding ‗s (a child‟s dream, the dog‟s kennel, Frank‟s new job)

If a name ends in the letter ‗s‘ either ‗s or only apostrophe is added (Charles‟s/Charles‟ address, St. Thomas‟s/St. Thomas‟ Hospital). No matter how the possessive case is written in such cases, it is normally pronounced as [iz].

With some famous names which end in the letter ‗s‘ just an apostrophe is added and the possessive can be pronounced with [iz] or without it (Burns‟ /Burns‟s poems, Dickens‟

/(Dickens‟s novels).

However, ancient Greek names have only one variant, the possessive form does not change the pronunciation of the word (Socrates‟ ['sokrati:z] wife, Xerxes‟ ['zǝ ksi: z] army, Euripides‟ |juǝ'rɪpɪdi:z] plays).

If two names are joined by the conjunction „and‟ „s is added to the second name (John and Mary‟s bank balance). But „s is added after each name to show individual possession (Sonia‟s and Marisa‟s photos).

2.   Regular plurals form the possessive case by just adding an apostrophe (Boys‟ school, Cheltenham Ladies‟ College, MPs‟salaries).

3.   Irregular plural nouns form the possessive case by adding „s (children‟s games, women‟s faces).

4.   Compound nouns add „s to the last word (the editor-in-chief‟s office, my mother-in- law‟s garden, a passer-by‟s comment). This rule applies to compound titles and time periods (Henry the Eighth‟s marriages, the Secretary of State‟s visit, a week or two‟s time).

 

 

§ 19. The main meaning of the genitive case is that of possession, hence the traditional term

‗the possessive case‟. This general sense undergoes a number of modifications under the influence of the lexical meaning of both the noun in the genitive case and the noun it modifies.

 

The main modifications of this meaning are:

 

1.        The idea of belonging/possession: John‟s coat, Mary‟s car.

 

2.        Different kinds of relations, such as:

 

a)  relation of the whole to its parts: John‟s leg, the cat‟s tail;

 

b)  personal or social relations: John‟s wife, John‟s friend.

 

Besides the genitive case retains some of its old meanings:

 

subjective relations:

Chekhov‟s observation = Chekhov observed;

the doctor‟s arrival =- the doctor arrived;

 

authorship:

Byron‟s poem, Shakespeare‟s tragedy;

 

objective relations:

Caesar‟s murder = Caesar was murdered;

Jule‟s arrest = Jule was arrested;

 

measure:

an hour‟s trip, a mile‟s distance.

In some cases the form ‘s completely loses the meaning of possession and comes to denote a quality, as in man‟s blood, woman‟s work (serving in works canteen or a transport cafe, is generally regarded as woman‟s work), his sly idiot‟s smile - идиотская улыбка, you‘ve got angel‟s eyes -ангельские глазки, this is a women‟s college - женский колледж.

 

§ 20. The syntactical function of the genitive case is that of an attribute. It is always used as a premodifier of a noun and is sometimes called the dependent genitive.

However there are some cases when the noun in the genitive case is not followed by the headword and then it stands for the whole noun phrase. This is the so-called absolute genitive. It is used:

 

1.  To avoid repetition:

Our house is better than Mary‟s (than Mary‘s house).

 

2.  After the preposition of:

an old friend of my mother‟s, that cousin of my husband‟s.

 

3.  To denote shops such as the butcher‟s, the baker‟s, the grocer‟s, the chemist‟s, or institutions, where the genitive is usually a saint's name:

St Paul‟s (Cathedral), St James‟s (Palace),

 

or places of residence:

at Timothy‟s, at Old Jolyon‟s, at my uncle‟s.

 

There are also cases (though rare) when a noun is modified by two successive nouns in the genitive case. It is the so called double genitive, as in My mother‟s father‟s people. The first in such structures has as a rule the meaning of possession (the father of my mother), while the second may either have the same meaning (the people of my father) or other meanings as in: the boy's half-hour‘s run.

 

Syntactical functions of the noun

§ 21. A noun may be used in the function of almost any part of the sentence, although its most typical functions are those of the subject and the object. It may function as

 

1.   Subject:

The ship got under way.

 

2.   Predicative:

He was certainly the best hated man in the ship.

 

3.   Object:

I gave him a pound. Twelve dollars are enough for the man.

 

4.   Objective predicative:

I found him an excellent listener.

 

5.   Attribute:

A dog is a man‟s best friend.

 

6.   Adverbial modifier (usually as part of a prepositional phrase):

High above the city, on a tall column, stood the statue of the Happy Prince.

THE NOUN

Word Formation

Ex. 1 Make nouns from the following words.

 

1. Employ……………………….

2.   Post ………………………….

3.   Except ……………………….

4. Expand …………………………

5. Accept…………………………

6. Publish ………………………….

7. Develop…………………………….

8. Combine…………………………..

9. Drive……………………………

10. Inspire…………………………..

11. Instruct……………………………..

12. Portray……………………………..

13. Translate…………………………….

14. Injure………………………………..

15. Refer…………………………….

16. Apologise………………………..

17. Examine………………………….

18. Pollute………………………….

19. Judge…………………………..

20. Use…………………………………

21. Lonely…………………………….

22. Reluctant…………………………

23. Excellent…………………………

24. Intelligent…………………………

25. Accurate………………………….

26. Excited……………………………..

27. Fragile………………………………

28. Regular……………………………...

29. Stupid ………………………………

30. Isolate………………………………

 

Ex. 2 Fill in the right form of the words in brackets.

The (1)…………….(long) of the journey was beginning to cause a lot of (2)………………

(frustrate) for everyone involved. Unfortunately, father got the blame, as he had been responsible for the (3) …………… (organize) of the trip. (4) (impatient) had begun to set in

when we realized we‘d been given the wrong (5) (direct) by a well-meaning

pedestrian. What is more, father‘s (6) ……………. (popular) was not (7) (increase)

by his (8) (insist) that we stop every hour so to observe the scenery. The trip to

France, he‘d said, would (9) (broad) our horizons and provide us with both (10)

……………. (amuse) and (11) …………….. (educate). However, in (12) (real), it

turned out to be an (13) (bear) waste of time and effort. It was then that we made the

(14)  …………… (decide) never to listen to one of father‘s (15) (propose) again.

Ex. 3 Add the correct prefixes to the beginning of the words.

1.       The government protesters marched to parliament.

2.       John ………slept and was late for work.

3.       Many people who wanted tickets were disappointed because organizers had

………estimated the singer‘s popularity.

4.       He is taking a ………atlantic flight from London to New York.

5.       When the ambulance came, the man was conscious after being knocked down by a

car.

6.       The president of the US was honoured at a ceremony, five years later after he

resigned.

7.       People who can only speak their own language are called lingual.

8.       Superman is a comic strip character who has human strength.

9.       There were violent scenes as ……government and anti-government demonstrators fought outside parliament.

10. racial fighting between the two minorities had led to civil war in the country.

11.   John left his job because he was able to deal with such a large amount of work.

12.   The two countries operated to prevent the shipment of drugs from one to the other.

13.   That child looks very thin. I think he must be fed.

14.   Don‘t feed the dog or it‘ll get fat.

15.   The media gave her so much attention she became a star overnight.

16.   He never goes out or talks to people; he is so social.

17.   Tom knew the information was somewhere in his conscious, but he couldn‘t

remember it.

18.   I always find the day after Christmas an climax.

19.   The man had to ….apply the paint because the first coat wasn‘t sufficient.

20.   Ghandy achieved a lot through violent action.

21.   The neighbouring tribes found it difficult to… exist peacefully.

22.   We caught the continental train from Paris to Istanbul.

23.   As these programmes are changeable, they can be used with any computer system.

24.   We aren‘t allowed onto the ferry because it had been booked.

 

Gender

Ex. 4 Put (M) for male, (F) for female or (M/F) for both in the spaces.

1. Doctor ………………………

2. Nurse …………………………

3. Teacher ………………………….

4. Typist …………………………..

5. Student ………………………….

6.   Bride …………………………

7.   Pilot ………………………….

8. Waiter …………………………..

9. Wife …………………………..

10. Driver …………………………….

11. Barman …………………………

12. King …………………………..

13. Child ………………………………

14. Lord ……………………………….

15. Queen ……………………………

16. Lady ………………….

17. Scientist ………………………

18. Prince …………………….

19. Stewardess ……………………

20. Musician ………………………..

 

Ex. 5 Write the masculine or feminine of the following if there is a difference.

1. Husband ………………………..

2. Politician …………………………

3. Brother ………………………….

4.   Uncle ………………………….

5.   Student ………………………..

6. Nephew ………………………….

7. Policeman ……………………..

8.   Lawyer ……………………….

9.   Waiter ………………………..

10. Actor …………………………

11. Doctor ……………………..

12. Monk……………………….

13. Duke ………………………..

14. Clerk ………………….

15. Shop assistant ……………………

 

Singular – Plural

Ex. 6 Write the plural of the following nouns.

1. city……………. 2.      brother-in-law………………. 3.      headline………………… 4. photo………………….. 5.       bank robbery………………….. 6.       stepfather…………….. 7. couch……………… 8. dish……………….. 9. tray…………….. 10. roof………………. 11. sit-in……………… 12. hold-up……………….. 13. mouse………………… 14. tooth……………… 15. knife……………… 16. potato……………….. 17. sleeping pill……………. 18. calf………………. 19.   water-bottle………………… 20.   sunshade……………… 21. trout………………

22. nanny………………… 23. headache……………………. 24.   dictionary……………………. 25.   pincushion………………… 26. phone…………………. 27. hoof………………….. 28. radio……………… 29. painkiller……………….. 30. bush………………… 31. pen-friend…………….. 32. video……………… 33. pillowcase…………….. 34. violin………………… 35. wife…………………… 36. volcano…………………. 37. wish…………………. 38.   ferryboat……………….. 39.   medium……………… 40.   flamingo………………. 41. safe……………… 42. onlooker………………

 

Ex. 7 Fill in the plural.

I wonder who decides what sort of (1) ………….. (animal) are kept in (2) (zoo)?

You expect to see a lot of (3) …………. (monkey), (4) …………… (rhino), and (5) …………..

(lion), but you rarely see (6) ……….. (ox), (7) …………. (sheep), (8) (deer) or (9)

…………….. (goose), probably because these can be seen commonly enough in the wild. Each day large (10) …………. (delivery) of food arrive for the (11) (beast) to eat. Not

expensive items like (12) ……….. (salmon) or (13) (trout), but ordinary things like

(14) …………. (potato) and (15) ………….. (tomato) – although the (16) (panda)

like (17) ………….. (bamboo). The whole family, (18) …….. (man), (19) (woman)

and (20) ………….. (child) can take (21) ………… (photo) or make (22) (video) of

them eating with their (23) ………. (paw) and (24) (tooth), since animals do not use

(25)  ………… (knife) and (26) (fork) to eat.

Countable – Uncountable Nouns

Ex. 8 Fill in is / are.

1.       Where ….. your trousers?

2.       Could you tell me where the scissors ….?

3.       Tonight, there ….. athletics on TV.

4.       Money … easy to spend and difficult to save.

5.       Gloves …. worn in cold weather.

6.       This student‘s knowledge …… amazing.

7.       Love …. The reason for much happiness in the world.

8.       This bread ….. stale.

9.       Your pyjamas …… on the bed.

10.   My luggage …… too heavy to carry.

11.   My advice to you …… to stay in bed.

12.   Physics ……. my favourite subject.

13.   Measles ….. a common illness.

14.   The glasses …. in the cupboard.

15.   My mum‘s hair ….. really long.

16.   Our bathroom scales ……. Quite accurate.

17.   Darts ….. a popular game in England.

18.   This work …. too hard for me.

19.   People …. unhappy with the new tax system.

 

Ex. 9 Write C (countable) or U (uncountable).

1.       Sugar 2.       Bird 3.       Pen 4.       Transport 5.       Housework 6.       Ball 7.       Soap

8.      Bridge 9.      Water 10.   News 11.   House 12.   Luggage 13.   Boy 14.   fruit

15.  Chess 16.  Food 17.  Dog 18.  Furniture 19.  Weather 20.  Sausage

 

 

Ex. 10 Make the following uncountable nouns plural as in the example.

1.       Ice     two       two ice cubes 2.       Toast    three ………………………. 3.  Soap     two ………………………….. 4.  Tea       two …………………………..

11. Wood       three ……………………… 12. News        two ……………………….. 13. Jam          three ……………………… 14. Beef         three ………………………

5.  Lamb    three …………………………. 6.  Ink        two …………………………... 7.   Cola      two …………………………... 8.   Advice  two ………………………….. 9.  Sugar    two ………………………….. 10. Yoghurt      two ………………………

15. Paper        two ……………………….. 16. Hockey    two ……………………….. 17.  Chocolate       three ………………….. 18.  Spectacles      two …………………… 19.  Toothpaste     two …………………… 20.  Information    three …………………..

 

Ex.11 Fill in the gaps with an appropriate noun+of to indicate quantity.

1. A carton / glass /jug of orange juice. 2.   A cheese.

3.      A bread.

4.      A coffee.

5.      A water.

6.      A wine.

7.      A chocolate.

8.      A crisps.

9.      A honey.

10.  A meat.

11.  A spaghetti.

12.  A flour.

 

Ex. 12 Underline the correct item.

1.       All of his belongings was / were in one small suitcase.

2.       Soccer is / are a popular game in England.

3.       Aerobics do / does you a lot of good.

4.       Chocolate makes / make you put on weight.

5.       Most people enjoy / enjoys Christmas.

6.       The money he makes is /are enough to live on.

7.       The police is / are looking for the murderer.

8.       Her good looks always gets / get her what she wants.

9.       The young couple is / are getting married next year.

10.   My advice is / are to stop smoking immediately.

11.   Measles, which is / are a children‘s disease, is / are dangerous for adults.

12.   The audience was / were given free tickets to the next show.

13.   The economics I learnt at school is / are out of date now.

14.   Her grandparents‘ death in a car accident was / were a great shock.

15.   Fish is / are easy to look after as pets.

16.   Television news gives / give you more information than radio news.

17.   The stairs to the first floor is /are over there.

18.   The information I got was / were very helpful.

 

Ex. 13 Fill in is or are.

1.      Your jeans … hanging in the wardrobe.

2.      Where … my scissors?

3.      There … a lecture on economics today.

4.      The shopping … extremely heavy.

5.      Where … my boxing gloves?

6.      This information … incorrect!

7.      Her hair … beautiful.

8.      Your socks … in the drawer.

9.      Her furniture … very expensive.

10.   Her accommodation … luxurious.

11.   Evidence … needed before the trial can continue.

12.   The news … very exciting.

13.   Mumps … a common illness among young children.

14.   Where … my glasses?

15.   German … difficult to learn.

16.   Where … the kitchen scales?

17.   Chess … a popular game.

18.   Her work … very tiring.

19.   People … starving in many countries.

20.   Happiness … the key to her success.

 

Ex. 14Write the correct form of the verbs in brackets. Use only the Present Simple.

1.       Wild geese (fly) south for the winter.

2.       The press (be) often unfair to political candidates.

3.       Six months (be) a long time to spend in hospital.

4.       Two miles …… (be) not a long way to walk to school.

5.       Economics …… (be) difficult for people with poor maths skills.

6.       American Airlines (be) one of the largest carriers in the United States.

7.       The stairs (be) too steep for me to climb.

8.       Two-thirds of the food produced on the farm (be) used for people in that region.

9. (be) the number of students studying French falling?

10.   Bus trips to and from New York (take) two hours either way.

11.   International news (rely) on correspondents in every major city.

12.   Five pounds …… (be) quite a lot of money to lose.

13.   In the Philippines, there …… (be) heavy rains each year.

14.   Two hours per week (be) not enough to learn a foreign language.

 

Ex. 15 Write the correct form of the verbs in brackets.

I sometimes think that society (1) (throw) away things without even thinking of

repairing them. Trousers (2) (be) easy to mend or can be made into shorts which

(3) …………… (look) nice on most people. Pliers that (4) (be) broken or scissors that

(5)  ……....... (be) blunt can be fixed or sharpened. Clothes (6) (be) expensive and

household goods always (7) ………. (prove) useful so why (8) (be) these belongings

often thrown away? Intelligence (9) (be) not really needed, just common sense.

Congratulations (10) …………. (be) in order for those who (11) (use) their heads in

this way. An old pair of jeans which (12) (be) used for gardening, pyjamas which (13)

…………. (become) dishcloths and tights which (14) (strain) food, all make our

earnings (15) (go) further.

Ex.16 Underline the correct item. Sometimes both of them are correct.

1.        The advice she gave me was / were very helpful.

2.        Her earnings is / are very low.

3.        The weather is / are very unpredictable in England.

4.        Sugar is / are bad for your teeth.

5.        Most people go / goes on holiday at least once a year.

6.        Physics is / are the study of natural laws.

7.        Football is / are a popular sport.

8.        All of his clothes was / were on the floor.

9.        Her stunning looks is / are the key to her success.

10.   Her brother‘s death was / were traumatic.

11.   Athletics is / are challenging.

12.   Her love of money was / were almost an obsession.

13.   His luggage was / were extremely heavy.

14.   Is /are the information correct?

15.   The old couple is / are moving to the coast.

16.   The staff of the hospital is / are very helpful.

17.   Billiards is / are played by many people.

18.   There is / are a lot of sheep in that field.

19.   Darts is / are a popular game in Britain.

20.   The news is / are on at 6 o‘clock.

 

Ex. 17 Translate into English.

1.      Его ищет полиция.

2.      Что случилось с его ногами?

3.      Это плохой совет.

4.      Его доход довольно высок.

5.      Эти сведения – старые.

6.      Этот кот не ловит мышей.

7.      У нее не очень длинные волосы.

8.      Товар испорчен.

9.      Где деньги? – Они в кошельке.

10.  Эти люди – немцы.

11.  Это хорошие новости.

12.  Почему твоя одежда на полу?

13.  Физика – его любимый предмет.

14.  Ваши успехи доставляют мне радость.

15.  Ваши дети еще маленькие.

16.  Это ужасная мебель.

17.  У него было два зятя.

18.  Я не люблю дождливую погоду.

19.  Где ножницы?

20.  Это тяжелый багаж.

21.  Это грязная одежда.

22.  Полиция все знает.

23.  Мои часы немного спешат.

24.    Его советы всегда правильны.

 

Ex. 18 Complete the sentences using the noun in brackets in the singular or plural form and a/an where necessary.

1.      He gave me a box of my favourite (chocolate).

2.      His favourite food is (chocolate).

3.      She bought (paper) on her way home.

4.      He placed all the important (paper) in his briefcase.

5.      I need some (paper) to write this message on.

6.      Hurry up! We don‘t have much (time).

7.        She has visited us several (time) this month.

8.      He has no (experience), but she is keen to learn.

9.      She had a lot of exciting (experience) during her travels.

10.   We went for a walk in the (wood) after lunch.

11.   His desk is made of (wood).

12.   Jane is in her (room) reading a book.

13.   We have plenty of (room) for a party here.

14.   I‘m going to have my (hair) cut tomorrow.

15.   There was (hair) in my soup.

16.   I‘m thirsty. I need (glass) of water.

17.   Susan only wears her (glass) when she reads.

18.   This ornament is made of coloured (glass).

19.   Helen bought (iron) in the sale at the electrical store.

20.   The old gate was made of (iron).

 

Ex. 19 Correct the mistakes.

1.       We lost our luggages in the airport.

2.       We went to Bath by the car.

3.       The police is searching for the stolen painting.

4.       Twenty kilometers are too far to travel to school.

5.       A very reliable means of transport are the train.

6.       The criminal was sentenced to ten years in the prison.

7.       Two hovercrafts almost collided at sea yesterday.

8.       I have three sister-in-laws.

9.       The most people enjoy listening to music.

10.   The news are on TV at 6 o‘clock every evening.

 

Possessive Case

Ex. 20 Connect the nouns using –„s, or …of… .

1.   Car / Helen ……………………………

2. The manager / the restaurant ………………………………..

3. Shoes / women ………………………….

4.      The results / the test ………………………….

5.      Bicycles / my daughters ………………………….

6.      Secretary / the assistant manager ……………………………….

7.      The corner / the room ……………………………….

8.      House / their parents ………………………………..

9.      The back / the classroom …………………………………..

10. Shoes / William ……………………………….

11. Walk / an hour …………………………….

12. Partner / Jim ……………………………..

13. Rome / the streets …………………………..

14. UN / headquarters …………………………………..

 

Ex. 21 Rewrite the sentences using the correct possessive form.

1.        Nobody went to the meeting last week. Nobody went to the last week’s meeting.

2.        The drive to the airport takes two hours.

3.        They will get their exam results six weeks from now.

4.        I look after James – Karen – children.

5.        I received the letter in the post – yesterday.

6.        It‘s autumn. The tree – the leaves are falling off.

7.        Graham never listens to his doctor – the advice.

8.        Are you going to Jane – Paula – the party?

9.        He has never done a hard day of work in his life.

10.   At the moment I‘m staying with a friend – my.

11.   I think I‘ll order the special of today.

12.   The man knocked on the house – door.

13.   The ticket inspector looked at the people – the tickets.

14.   Mrs Jones – Miss Smith – cars are being serviced.

15.   The sales target this month is two million pounds.

 

Ex. 22 Rewrite the following using the correct possessive form.

1.       At the backer – the shop …………………………………..

2.       The princess – the ring ……………………………………

3.       The couple – the honeymoon ………………………………..

4. The honey – the taste ……………………………………….

5. The tree – the roots ………………………………………..

6. The children – the toys ……………………………………….

7.   The line – the end …………………………………………..

8.   My mother-in-law – hat …………………………………….

9. The cats – collars …………………………………………….

10. The dog – the basket ………………………………………….

11.  The room – the emptiness ………………………………………

12.  The world – the wonders ……………………………………….

13. The man – the wallet ……………………………………………

14. The prisoners – the escape ……………………………………..

15. The view – the beauty ………………………………………….

16. The monkey – the tail ……………………………………………

17. The bride – the mother ………………………………………….

18. The girls – the father ………………………………………….

 

Ex. 23 Rewrite the following using the correct possessive form.

1.                  The fashionable colour this year is blue. This year‟s fashionable colour is blue.

2.                  She had a hard day of work.

3.                  You will receive this a month from now.

4.                  They weren‘t at the celebrations last year.

5.                  The walk to the village is a mile long.

6.                  We must look at the timetable for this week.

7.                  I read the article in the paper – Sunday.

8.                  The writer showed us a poem – his.

9.                  We had a party in Sue – Sally – flat.

10.             Mr Browm – Miss Green – offices are being refurnished.

11.             You should follow your parents – the advice.

12.             I am to be bridesmaid at Harry – Renata – the wedding.

13.             The roof – the tiles are falling off.

14.             Simon is certainly no friend – my.

15.             The Porsche drew up at the restaurant – the entrance.

16.             A security guard checked the passengers – the bags.