1. Conjunctions
Conjunctions connect words, clauses or sentences together: for example, and, but or if. The following section examines their use in English.
1.1.
Coordinating conjunctions
Before studying
the coordinating conjunctions themselves, we should
observe that English can eliminate the second
subject in coordinated expressions linked by and,
but and yet if the two expressions are complete sentences
and share the same subject. Examples:
It also studies
the steps that have to be followed
and indicates its weak points. He knew the answer but didn’t
tell her.
She knew she was in danger, yet refused to move.
And – i
The street
was long and narrow. It’s raining and snowing.
They provide
information on current affairs and show trends in public opinion.
But – sinó, però
The interview’s questions were generally open but followed a pattern. It
wasn’t in Reus, but Tarragona.
He’s a good
boy, but he doesn’t study much.
There are increasingly more internet users, but government surveillance is growing.
For – ja que, perquè
The conjunction for
is generally only used in formal contexts.
Hearing the song affected me deeply, for it had
been my mother’s favourite.
Nor – ni
The vast
majority of adolescents say that videogames do not limit,
nor are they a substitute for, their usual social life.
No commercial use can be made of the original
work, nor can derivative
works be produced.
Or – o
You
can go back to any of the screens and change or revise your entry
without losing any data.
Hurry up, or
else we’ll miss the train.
Professionals are
interested in undertaking innovation projects or finding new jobs in a dynamic new environment.
So
– per tant, doncs
Note that the word so is
also used in consecutive expressions (eg so
big that, so much work that, etc.; see section Sy 2.3.).
It started to rain, so
we left early.
This
information will allow
users to retrieve
your document, so we
recommend that you provide all applicable data.
Currently, you
do not form part of any group, so no information can be shown.
Yet – tanmateix,
no obstant això, però
Note that yet is
also a time adverb (ja question and encara negative; see section Sy 6.4.).
You’ve got all the money you want, and yet you
don’t use it.
Machines are neither creative
nor trusting, yet in our daily lives,
we are increasingly in their hands.
He was a stern
yet fair master.
1.2.
Correlative conjunctions
Correlative
conjunctions link balanced words and expressions. In English, the following
five are the most important.
Both...
and – tant... com
Both my mother
and yours were
born in California. It was a masterpiece, both for style and content.
Note
that, because of the inherent dual nature of the word both, the construction both...
and is limited to describing two entities. If three entities are mentioned,
other expressions must be used. Example:
Both
the students and teachers, as well as the parents, laughed a lot.
Either... or – o... o
Either he didn’t tell me or I’ve forgotten. Decide: either one or the other.
We must either
go forward, stay where we are or retreat.
Neither...
nor – ni... ni
They have
neither the land
nor the means
to develop modern
operations. He neither smiled nor spoke nor looked at me.
Not only...
but – no solament... sinó
It’s not only legal, but also necessary.
He
not only drinks too much, but he tries to hide it.
What is intended
is not only to evaluate
a specific website,
but also to establish a series of guidelines.
Whether... or – tant si... com
Whether
we go by bus or train, it will take us at least three hours. You’ll have to pay the full price whether you leave this evening or stay
until tomorrow morning.
1.3.
Subordinating conjunctions Causal
conjunctions
As – com que
As you didn’t show up, I left.
As the journal focuses
on library services, it is of great interest to librarians. As we’d done our homework, the test presented
no special difficulties.
Note that the conjunction as is also a temporal conjunction, with the meaning of mentre.
Note too that the
compound conjunction as long as,
apart from its conditional sense, is sometimes used to express cause. Compare
the following sentences.
Conditional: We’ll be fine as long as we
follow the map.
Anirem
bé (mentre/sempre que) seguim el mapa.
Because – perquè
They pay me more because I work more.
Around 70% of students choose the UOC because it lets them manage their time. We can’t
turn down his help, because
otherwise he would be offended.
Note too the expression because of, translated in CATALAN
by a causa de. For example:
During my career,
I’ve seen too many projects
fail because of a lack of
attention to change management principles.
Al llarg de la meva
carrera, he vist fracassar molts
projectes a causa
de la manca d’atenció als principis de gestió del canvi.
Since – com que, atès que
Note that the conjunction
since is also a temporal
conjunction, with the meaning of des que (see
the entry for since in the
discussion of conjunctions of time below).
Since the government refuses to take action, the criminals have gone unpunished.
Since systems administration is a very broad-ranging field,
this manual only seeks to be an introduction to this
passionate world.
Concessive
conjunctions
Although,
though, even though – tot i que
Although we had
the same ideas,
we sometimes argued. Even though it’s raining, I
still want to go out.
Note that these three concessive conjunctions can also be translated by encara que when this CATALAN conjunction is
followed by the indicative. (Encara que is
translated even if when followed by
a subjunctive expression; see below.) Example:
Even
though it’s your first concert, you’ve sung very well.
Encara que és el primer concert heu cantat molt bé.
Even if – encara que (plus subjunctive)
Even if we run, we’ll miss the train. Encara que correguem, perdrem el tren. Even if we ran, we’d miss the train. Encara que correguéssim, perdríem
el tren.
Even if we had run, we
would have missed the train.
Encara
que haguéssim corregut, hauríem perdut el tren.
We’re going to do it
even if you oppose us.
Ho
farem encara que t’hi oposis.
If not – si no
She’s as fast as her
sister, if not faster.
Her salary was good, if not up to her expectations.
Whereas – mentre que
They
believe that women are emotional, whereas men are rational. Individual responsibility is mentioned four times,
whereas legislation is only mentioned once.
While
– tot i que; mentre que
The concessive conjunction while is synonymous with although
(tot i que) when it appears at the
beginning of a sentence and is a synonym of whereas
(mentre que) when it appears after the main clause. Examples:
While
(Although) I admire your goals, I abhor your methods.
The total
number of users
stands at 8,362,
while (whereas) the total
number of visits was 10,879.
However,
it is good to keep in mind that the most important use of the conjunction while is temporal (see below), with the
meaning of mentre, and therefore the
use of while should be avoided when
ambiguity might otherwise result. For example:
While they were
still collecting the
data, she started
writing the report I work, while you have fun.
When the sense is concessive, these
two sentences would be better expressed using
although and whereas, respectively:
Although they were still collecting the data, she
started writing the
report. I work, whereas you have fun.
Conditional conjunctions
As long as – sempre que,
mentre
We’ll go there
tomorrow, as long as it doesn’t rain.
As
long as there are computers, there will be malicious viruses.
If – si (see also
section Sy 8.5.)
If you want to learn English, you have to study.
If
you click on the link, you will be taken to the homepage.
In case – en cas que
In case
you haven’t read
the article, we’ll
reprint it here. What should be done in case there were an accident?
Note also the
expression just in case (per si de cas):
I’ll bring along an umbrella, just in case.
Unless – llevat que
We never go there unless we’re invited.
We are headed
for castastrophe unless we change our economic system.
Conjunctions of purpose
So that, in order that –
per tal que/perquè plus subjunctive
Note that the conjunction in order that is generally limited to
formal use.
They pay me more so
that I’ll work more.
Em
paguen més perquè (per tal que) treballi més.
I said this so that
no one would be able to doubt my good will.
Ho vaig dir
perquè (per tal que) ningú no pogués dubtar de la meva bona voluntat.
We
can carry out
feasibility studies in order that
the properties of the
software be accurately evaluated prior to its acquisition.
Podem
dur a terme estudis de factibilitat per
tal que es valorin acuradament les propietats del
programari abans d’adquirir-lo.
Conjunctions of time
After – després que
I don’t want to leave
until after they’ve come back.
He
had to drop out of the race after his car broke down.
As – quan
The
basic difference between the synonyms as
and while is that while applies to longer periods of time
and as to shorter. As is used
when talking about two simultaneous changes, whereas while tends to be used more often when the main clause
is in the present tense and
the subordinate in the future (see the entry for while further below).
He
came in as (not while) I was leaving.
As (not While)
we get older, our bodies change.
Before – abans que
They
knew how to swim before they could walk. Let’s stop this war before it begins.
Since – des que
The educational model
has been the hallmark of the university since it began. Zoe has known Carla since they
were in school together.
Remember that the conjunction since can
also be used as a causal conjunction (see above). To avoid
confusions, if the temporal since is
used at the beginning of a sentence, it is usually expressed ever since.
Ever since we got rid of the TV, our conversations have been getting
more and more interesting.
Until, till –
fins que
Wait until I get
back.
You
cannot collect it until you have received notification by email.
When – quan
I learned
to ride when I was a child. We’ll
tell him when he comes.
While – mentre
Remember that, in contrast
to its synonym as (see above),
while is used for lengthy periods of time. It is also more often used
when the main clause is in the present
tense and the subordinate in the future.
While (not As) I was living in Vic, my sister was studying in Girona.
They broke into my house while (not as) I was on vacation.
While (not As) you pluck the chicken, I’ll light the fire.
That said, in many cases as and while are completely synonymous. Examples:
While/As I was walking
to work I saw a terrible accident. While/As she was cooking
dinner we heard
an explosion.
1.4. The conjunction that
The conjunction that corresponds to the CATALAN
conjunction
que. An important difference, however, is that English can
in some cases omit the conjunction.
Broadly speaking, the briefer and more colloquial the expression, the more likely
it is that the conjunction will be omitted. That said, there are certain
cases in which the sentence might sound ambiguous without the conjunction. Generally
speaking, it is probably safer to always
include the conjunction (given that it is never wrong), except in very brief,
colloquial expressions.
In the
following examples we will put the conjunction that in parentheses when we consider that its use is optional.
It’s funny (that) they
haven’t said anything about it.
It isn’t fair that a man be paid more than a woman for the same work.
My feeling is (that) we should forget about
it.
Another
of
the conclusions was that the current crisis represents an opportunity. He said (that) he was tired.
Our lawyer
insisted (that) father be released.
The
paper alleges that
misguided social reforms
have disrupted family
life. I’m really happy (that) you’ve come.
Galileo
was afraid that the Church’s
reputation would be damaged if they rejected Copernicanism.
The fear that
the enemy would attack made them flee.
Do
you agree with Freud’s view that neuroses are caused by sexual factors?
1.5. The conjunctions if and
whether
Remember first that we have studied
the conditional conjunction if (si) and the concessive expression if not (si no) in section
Sy 8.3.
Apart from these uses, the conjunction if is also used to express
uncertainty and questions, cases in which it is often synonymous with the conjunction whether. However, there are two or three important contexts in which whether must be used, and it is
important to keep them in mind because CATALAN
does not make this distinction.
Finally, if is used in a number of idiomatic expressions that we will study
below.
If and whether expressing uncertainty or
interrogation
Broadly
speaking, the use of if or whether is optional when introducing
expressions of uncertainty or interrogation; in general, whether is a bit more formal. Here are some colloquial examples in
which the use of if would probably
be more likely:
Ask him if he knows
anything about it.
Do you remember
if she was afraid of him?
I don’t know if I’ll ever be able to forget it.
Here are some examples in which both whether and if would
sound perfectly natural:
I wonder whether/if she’s got any sisters.
I asked her whether/if she’d like to see a film.
We’ll soon learn whether/if it is true.
I really doubt
whether/if they told you the whole story. That said, the
use of whether is obligatory in the
following cases. After prepositions
It depends on whether (not if) we can get a
loan.
They
quarrelled about whether (not if)
he should have the operation or not.
Before infinitives
We didn’t know whether (not if) to laugh or
cry. Have you decided whether (not if) to call the police?
After the verb discuss
We were discussing whether (not if) we should buy
new drapes.
Finally, many stylists
consider the use of whether to be
preferable when two or more alternatives are presented:
We
haven’t
decided whether we are going
to cut staff
or reduce other
costs. I couldn’t tell whether they were sleeping,
dozing or just lying there.
Idiomatic
expressions using if
if only – tant de bo
Note
that if only is almost always used to
express
resignation, that is, acceptance of something considered impossible to change
(eg If only you were younger
= Tant de bo que fossis
més jove). Note that the verb is
used in the past simple tense. When the speaker
considers that there is a possibility that the desire be completed,
the use of wish in the would form is more common
(eg I wish you would drive
slower = Tant de bo que conduïssis més a poc a poc). More examples:
If only you were here with me!
Tant de bo que fossis
aquí amb mi!
If only we hadn’t
spoken without thinking!
Tant
de bo que no haguéssim parlat sense pensar!
The
following expressions have no exact equivalent in CATALAN, but their
meanings are not difficult to discern.
What or little, if anything
What, if
anything, is wrong with our schools?
Què va
malament en les nostres escoles, si és que hi va res?
There was little, if
anything, anybody could do.
Hi
havia poca cosa que algú pogués fer, si és que hi havia res a fer.
Who, if anyone
Who, if
anyone, deserves a statue?
Qui
mereix una estàtua, posat que hi hagi algú que la mereixi?
Few/little, if any
There are few,
if any, benefits to totalitarian government.
Hi
ha pocs beneficis en els governs totalitaris, si és que n’hi ha.
I have little, if any, interest in the matter.
L’assumpte
m’interessa poc, suposant que m’interessi una mica.
Seldom/rarely, if
ever
Most students
had seldom, if ever, used a computer.
La majoria
dels alumnes no havia fet servir gaire
un ordinador, si és que n’havien
fet servir mai cap.
Usually, if not always
They are
usually, if not always, in bed by ten.
Si
no sempre, normalment són al llit abans de les deu.
Finally, we should mention the negative declaration if anything.
She didn’t seem surprised to me; if anything,
she seemed rather blasé.
A
mi ella no em semblava sorpresa; de fet, semblava força indiferent.
