Verbs and Tenses

1.   Verbs

Verbs describe an action, state of being or event. There are two versions of the basic verb form in English: the full and bare infinitive – ie with or without to. Verbs have different tenses to reflect different points in time or conditions. The following section details these and other points that need to be taken into account when using verbs in English.

 

 

1.1.     Verb tenses

In English there are eight indicative verb tenses and two subjunctive ones, as can be seen in the following table.

 

 

Indicative tenses
simple present	present perfect
present continuous	present perfect continuous
simple past	past perfect
past continuous	past perfect continuous

 

 

 

Subjunctive tenses
present subjunctive	past subjunctive

 

Note that English does not really have a future or conditional tense as such. Although some authorities have cited the compound forms will + bare infinitive and would + bare infinitive as the future and conditional tenses, respectively, this denomination is unsatisfactory because, on the one hand, the future in English is more often expressed using expressions other than the will form  and, on the other, the would form is also used  

in non-conditional contexts.

 

 

1.1.1.     Simple present and present continuous Simple present

The simple present tense is formed using the bare infinitive for all persons except the third person singular, which must use the -s form (this is, in fact, the only use made of this form). The simple present is used in the following cases:

To express habitual or repetitive actions.

I work in Girona.

Jon smokes too much.

In our house the men wash the dishes.

To express general truths.

Mice fear cats. Beginnings are difficult.

The universe forms a harmonic whole.

To describe mental states and emotions.

We agree.

Ramona knows the answer.

I want to tell you something.

With copulative verbs.

He’s French. She looks tired.

In zero conditional and first conditional expressions (see also Sy 5.1.7.).

If you heat water, it boils.

If you call me this evening, I’ll give you his number.

The simple present tense is also frequently used to translate the C_ATALAN subjunctive.

Present continuous

The present continuous is formed using the present conjugation of be (am, is or are) plus the gerund. It is commonly used in the following cases:

To express an action that is happening at the present moment.

She’s changing her clothes. They’re playing our song.

The children are jumping on the bed.

 

To express an action that is progressing over a relatively long period of time.

He’s studying to be an engineer. What are you working on now?

To express future arrangements (see also Sy 5.1.6.).

This summer we’re travelling to Italy. I’m having dinner with Griselda tonight.

With the adverb always, when referring to repeated actions in the past that will probably continue into the future. In this case there is always an element of exaggeration, expressing annoyance, praise, love, etc.

They’re always complaining. She’s always helping someone. I’m always thinking of you, dear.

The present continuous is also used to distinguish habitual actions that have a limited time span from those with an indefinite time span.

He’s living in Vic these days. (He is living there temporarily.)

Pau and Sílvia live in Vic. (Vic is their home.) . She’s writing some articles for Regió7. (She is, for example, a freelance writer.) She writes articles for Regió7. (This is her permanent job.)

 

1.1.2.    Simple past and past continuous Simple past

For regular verbs, the simple past tense is formed by adding the -ed suffix to the bare infinitive; for irregular verbs, it is the second of the verb’s three forms.

The simple past is used to describe completed actions in both the remote and near past.

I saw her two months ago; I saw her two hours ago. They were there for three days.

During the movie, I had to change my seat twice. I got off work and then walked home.

I waited for them for an hour.

In AmE, the simple past is also used to describe actions that have just occurred (in BrE the use of present perfect is more usual).

He just left.

I just saw her.

The simple past tense is also frequently used to translate the C_ATALAN subjunctive.

Past continuous

The past continuous is formed using the past conjugation of be (was or were) plus the gerund. It is commonly used to describe continuous past action. As is the case with the imperfect tense in C_ATALAN, neither the beginning nor the end of the action is referred to. Examples:

I was taking a shower when the phone rang. While I was watching TV, my wife was studying. Last night at this time I was sleeping.

 

As is the case with the present continuous (see section Sy 5.1.1.), the past continuous can be used along with the adverb always to express annoyance, praise, love, etc. Examples:

He was always calling at the oddest hours.

They were always asking if they could bring us anything from their farm.

 

 

1.1.3.    Present perfect and present perfect continuous Present perfect

The present perfect tense is formed using the present conjugation of the verb have (have or has) as an auxiliary and adding the participle. It is commonly used in the following cases:

To refer to unspecific actions concluded in the past. Note that in these cases it is not possible to use a specific time reference, such as yesterday, ago, at two o’clock, etc. You can, however, use such unspecific time references as ever, always, yet, so far, etc. Examples:

I have lived in Paris.

Have you read any Harry Potter books? We still haven’t had breakfast.

It’s the best wine I’ve ever had. There have been a lot of changes. We haven’t done anything so far. She has always lived in Gósol.

To refer to actions that have just finished happening; in these cases the adverb just is added. (In AmE, the simple past is often used in this context.) Examples:

He has just left.

I have just seen her.

To refer to actions that began in the past and continue into the present. Note that C_ATALAN uses the present tense to describe such actions. Note too that in many cases, the use of present perfect or present perfect continuous is optional. The difference is that with the present perfect we focus our attention more on the result of the action and with the present perfect continuous we focus more on the progression of the action. Examples:

I have had the flu for six days. We’ve been here for an hour.

Ever since I’ve lived here, I’ve been running (or I’ve run) two hours a day. Ever since the weather changed, I’ve been cold.

To refer to past actions that have some relevance in the present. Examples:

I’ve bought some cheese and I want you to try it. They have worked a lot and so they are tired.

She has bought herself a new car.

Present perfect continuous

The present perfect continuous is formed using the present conjugation of the verb have

(have or has) plus the participle been and a gerund. It is used in the following cases:

 

To talk about actions that began in the past and continue into the present (in which case C_ATALAN uses the present tense). Examples:

We’ve been working since two o’clock.

They’ve been travelling in Africa for eight years.

They’ve been going together ever since they were in high school.

To refer to continuous actions that have recently finished and have some relevance to the present. Examples:

I’m tired because I’ve been studying. You’ve been eating garlic, haven’t you?

I’ve been reading your novel and I find it fascinating!

 

 

1.1.4.    Past perfect and past perfect continuous Past perfect

The past perfect tense is formed using the past tense of the verb have (had) as an auxiliary and adding a participle. Its only use is to indicate that an action or a state in the past ended before some other finished action occurred, such as in the case of reported speech. It corresponds to the pretèrit plusquamperfet in C_ATALAN. Examples:

I reminded him that he hadn’t washed the dishes yet. They didn’t think they had been treated fairly.

The past perfect tense is also frequently used to translate the C_ATALAN subjunctive. For example, dubtava que haguessin acabat = I doubted that they had finished.

Past perfect continuous

The past perfect continuous is formed using the past tense of the verb have (had) as an auxiliary plus the participle been and a gerund. It is used to describe continuous actions in the past that were happening until some other finished action occurred. Examples:

We’d been working three hours when the bell sounded.

They’d been travelling in Africa for eight years when we met them.

They told me they’d been going together ever since they were in high school.

 

 

1.1.5.     Present and past subjunctive Present subjunctive

The present subjunctive form is always the same as the bare infinitive. Therefore, it only differs from the simple present for the verb be (eg I be, you be, he be, etc.) and for the third person singular (eg he go, she do, it occur, etc.). It is generally used in subordinate clauses following adjectives that express what is important or desirable, or following verbs that express orders, requests, suggestions and other similar ideas. Examples:

It’s essential that they be there on time. I insisted that he resign.

When the subordinate clause is headed by an adjective, in informal contexts the use of the subjunctive can be optional. Example:

It’s important that he keeps (or keep) us informed.

 

What’s more, in BrE, the combination should + bare infinitive is often used.

It’s necessary that the nurse should be present. (Or: It’s necessary that the nurse [be or is] present.)

The verbs most often used with the subjunctive are demand, insist, propose, recommend and suggest. These verbs almost always take either the subjunctive or the should form, though an indicative tense is sometimes seen, especially in BrE. Examples:

They demanded that he (should) do something to help them. We proposed that he (should) be named king.

He recommended/suggested that we (should) be ready by seven.

Other verbs that can also head a subordinate clause in the subjunctive are ask (when it means request, not when it means inquire), order, request and urge. However, with these verbs there is an alternate construction that is more common: verb + noun/pronoun + full infinitive. Examples:

She asked/ordered/requested/urged them to come.

(Or: She asked/ordered/requested/urged that they [should] come.)

The present subjunctive is also used in certain idioms that express desire or hope. Examples:

Let there be light! Long live the King! God bless you.

May all your Christmases be white.

Other such expressions include if need be (si cal), far be it from me (Déu me’n guard de),

lest (per tal que no, per si) and suffice it to say (n’hi ha prou que diguem).

Past subjunctive

The past subjunctive form in English coincides with the simple past form, and thus is only noticeable in the case of the verb be, when the simple past plural form can always be used (eg If I were a rich man). The sense is always hypothetical or unreal. In modern English, the use of were is becoming less stringent. In other words, use of I wish he was here (Tant de bo que fos aquí), rather than I wish he were here is becoming increasingly common, despite the recommendations of some style guides to the contrary. More examples:

He looked as if he were/was fifteen or sixteen. I wish it were/was sunnier.

Even if his statement were/was true, my opinion wouldn’t change. I live each day as if it were/was my last.

 

 

1.1.6.    Future

As was mentioned in section Sy 5.1., there is no future tense in English, as such. The two principal forms used to express the future are the will form (will + bare infinitive; in BrE, shall can sometimes be used instead of will, though it is never obligatory) and the be going to form (am/are/is + going to + bare infinitive). What’s more, in certain contexts, English often uses the present continuous tense to express the future. Finally, the construction be + full infinitive is used when referring to formal or official plans and for giving orders in a very formal way, and the simple present is used when referring to events scheduled in the future.

 

We  should mention too that there are three compound future forms: the future continuous     (I will be doing or I’m going to be doing), the future perfect (I will have done or I’m going to be doing) and the future perfect continuous (I will have been doing or I’m going to have been doing).

The use of one or another of the various future forms in English depends on the kind of future that is being expressed: ie, whether it is a prediction, intention, decision, promise or request. The emotional state of the speaker can also play a part.

Future: prediction

Predictions are most often expressed in English using the will form or the be going to form. The most important difference between these two forms is that we use the be going to form when we have some evidence in the present for what will happen in the future, or when we consider some future event to be likely. On the other hand, we use the will form when the prediction is not based on anything specific, or when it is conditional or hypothetical (eg If this is, then that will be). Note that expressions beginning with the adverbs maybe and perhaps almost always use the will form, because they indicate uncertainty. Finally, there are many predictions that can be perfectly well expressed using either form, though the be going to form implies more certainty on the part of the speaker.

Predictions using the be going to form

She’s going to have a baby. (not She will have a baby.)

Look at those black clouds! I think it’s going to rain. (not I think it will rain.)

Here we might note that when the prediction is further off in the future, there is little difference between, for example, I think it will snow next week and I think it’s going to snow next week. The latter expresses more certainty, but both are perfectly correct.

Be careful! You’re going to fall! (more usual than You’ll fall!)

Hold still; this is going to hurt a little. (more usual than This will hurt a little.) What a traffic jam! We’re going to be late. (more usual than We will be late.)

Predictions using the will form

We’ll get there too early if we leave now. (more usual than We’re going to.) Someday they’ll find a cure for cancer. (more usual than they’re going to.) Maybe he’ll forget all about it. (more usual than he’s going to.)

Even if you run you’ll miss the train. (more usual than you’re going to.)

Unless you live abroad, the new law won’t affect you. (more usual than isn’t going to.) Here is an example showing the difference between will and be going to in a specific case.

A)   Don’t shout so loud! They’ll kick you out.

B)   You’ve been too noisy and now they’re going to kick you out.

In example A), we use the will form because the prediction is based on a condition, that of shouting too loud. In example B), we use the be going to form because the condition has been fulfilled and it now seems certain that the noisy person will be kicked out.

Predictions that can use either form indifferently

Remember that, for these examples, the be going to form expresses more certainty; the speaker considers the prediction more likely to occur.

 

I think he will/is going to win the election. I guess it will/is going to take a while.

This new song will be/is going to be very popular. The bus will/is going to be here soon.

Future: intention

Intentions are most often expressed in English using the be going to form. Examples:

When are you going to write to your mother? I’m going to ask my boss for a transfer.

I’m going to quit (or give up) eating meat. I’m going to be a doctor when I grow up. They’re going to show us how to do it.

We’ve bought this camera and now we’re going to take pictures.

That said, it should be mentioned that intentions modified by either conditions or time clauses (clauses headed by conjunctions such as when, until, after, etc.) most often use the will form. Examples:

If I have time, I’ll do it.

We’ll tell him about it when he comes.

Note that, in the second example, the conditionality is expressed in C_ATALAN by the use of the subjunctive (Li ho direm quan vingui). Examples:

We’ll leave as soon as they call us. We won’t know until they tell us.

He’ll give a reward to the person that finds his watch.

Finally, we should mention that the be going to form can be used with time clauses when the outcome seems certain. Compare:

The princess will marry the knight who kills the dragon (conditional, because we don’t know whether someone will actually manage to kill it).

The princess is going to marry the knight who wins the tournament (not conditional because there will certainly be a winner of the tournament).

Future: decision

Examples of decisions using the present continuous

When referring to a decision to do something that was made in the past but that has not yet occurred, English often uses the present continuous. Another way of looking at it is to say that the present continuous is used to refer to those kinds of activities that one might write down in an agenda: definite appointments, arrangements to meet, special activities, etc. Examples:

They’re closing the Girona highway tomorrow. We’re leaving Thursday.

They’re getting married in July.

As far as the difference between the present continuous and the be going to form (see above) is concerned, the latter is a bit vaguer; it generally refers more often to an intention on the part of the speaker, without the same degree of certainty that the action will take place. Compare the following examples:

I’m going to take Marta out to dinner next week.

This is my intention, though I may not be sure yet which night we’ll both be free.

I’m taking Marta out to dinner next Friday. We have a definite date set.

We’re going to stay here tonight.

This is our intention. However, we might not be able to find a room.

We’re staying here tonight. We have booked our room.

This year we’re going to have the house painted.

This is our intention, but we haven’t hired the painters yet.

Next week we’re having the house painted.

We have hired the painters and settled on a date to begin the work.

Examples of spontaneous decisions using the will form

In contrast to decisions made in the past that haven’t yet occurred – for which we normally use the be going to form – English always uses the will form when the decision is spontaneous: that is, when it is made on the spur of the moment, without forethought. This decision is often the consequence of what someone else has said. Examples:

“I have a fever.” “OK, I’ll get you an aspirin.”

“We’d like to see some yellow trousers, please.” “All right, come with me and I’ll show you what we have.”

“I don’t have time to go shopping.” “No problem, I’ll go.” Wait, I’ll help you.

I think I’ll stop now; I’m feeling tired.

Use of the be + full infinitive construction

The be + full infinitive construction is used when referring to formal or official plans and for giving very formal orders. The negative is formed be + not + full infinitive. Examples:

The president is to travel to Andalusia this week. They are not to leave without my permission.

Promises, requests and strong emotions

English normally uses the will form to express promises and requests, whereas it is more usual to use the be going to form when expressing such strong emotions as hope, anger, love, etc. Examples:

I’ll do whatever is necessary.

I promise I’ll never be unfaithful.

Will you help me open these jars, please? Barcelona is going to win the league!

If the service doesn’t improve, I’m going to complain! I’m really going to miss you.

Compound future constructions

There are three compound future constructions in English, the most important of which  is the future continuous, formed will be + gerund or am/are/is going to be + gerund. There is generally no difference in meaning between these two forms, though the first is rather more usual. The other two compound future constructions are the future perfect, formed will have

+ participle, and the future perfect continuous, formed will have been + gerund.

 

Examples of the future continuous

The most important use of the future continuous is expressing actions in the future that will be happening “as usual” or “in the normal course of events”. Consider the following example:

(Pilot to passengers): “We’ll be flying at an altitude of thirty thousand feet.”

In this case, none of the other future forms we’ve studied would be adequate: the will form would be incorrect because this is neither a prediction nor a spontaneous decision, and the be going to form would sound unusual to passengers, implying that the flight plan was a mere intention.

This form is also a polite way of asking about someone’s plans or cancelling a previous commitment. Examples:

Will you be coming to the party Thursday? I’m afraid I won’t be coming to your party.

It is also a polite way of expressing what we feel to be likely.

You’ll be feeling tired after all that walking.

Finally, the future continuous is used to emphasize the continuous nature of actions that will be taking place in the future.

This time tomorrow, we’ll be driving to France.

We’ll be waiting for you at the station when you get to Ripoll.

Future perfect and the future perfect continuous

As is the case in C_ATALAN, the future perfect is used to refer to states or actions that will be finished at some time in the future. The future perfect continuous refers to continuous actions occurring between now and some time in the future that may be unfinished. Examples:

Next week we will have been married ten years. When they get here, we will have already left. At six I’ll have been waiting here two hours!

By Christmas I’ll have been working here for twenty years.

 

 

1.1.7.   Conditional

The first thing to keep in mind is the difference between conditional clauses and the conditional verb form. The latter is constructed would + bare infinitive (what we will refer to as the would form) and can nearly always be used to translate the C_ATALAN conditional tense. Examples:

I would do it.

I knew they wouldn’t help us. Would you please step back?

Conditional sentences, on the other hand, express hypothetical situations and their consequences. They are sometimes referred to as if sentences, because they always include the conjunction if, and are traditionally referred to as the zero, first, second and third conditionals. The following table clearly shows the construction of these four conditional expressions in English.

 

 

Type	If clause	Result clause
Zero	simple present	simple present/imperative
First	simple present	will form
Second	simple past	would, could, should, might forms
Third	past perfect	would/could have + participle
		would form

 

In the following four sections we will give an explanation and examples of these conditional clauses. Note that in every case the verb tenses correspond exactly to their C_ATALAN counterparts.

Zero conditional

The zero conditional is most often used to talk about certainties, universal truths, scientific facts, etc. It is unique among the conditionals in that if can be replaced with when or whenever without changing the meaning of the sentence (except in the case of the imperative).

If (When) you heat water to 100 degrees, it boils.

If (When) you eat lots of salted peanuts, you get thirsty. If you get lost, phone us.

First conditional

The if clause in the first conditional, normally in the simple present tense, is used to refer to a present or future situation, and the result clause, usually using the will form, states its possible (or probable) result. Examples:

If you help us, we’ll help you.

If it snows this afternoon, they’ll call off the match.

If you don’t finish this evening, you’ll have to work on it tomorrow. Nobody will say anything if you make a mistake.

What will you do if she isn’t elected?

Second conditional

The if clause in the second conditional is used to refer to an unreal event or state in the present, generally expressed in the simple past. The result clause, which usually uses the would form but which can also use the could and might forms, refers to what could have been the consequence of the if clause had it been true. Examples:

If I were (or was) a woman, I’d tell you to get lost. If we had more money, we could buy a better car. If you left now, you still might catch your train.

I wouldn’t do that, if I were (or was) you.

Third conditional

The if clause of the third conditional is used to refer to something that was unreal in the past and is generally expressed using the past perfect. There are two possible result clauses: the first refers to an unreal situation in the past that could have been the result had the if clause been true and is expressed using the expression would/could have + participle. The second refers to an unreal situation in the present that could have been the result had the if clause been true and is expressed using the would form.

 

Result clause expressing an unreal situation in the past:

If you had told me, I would have done something.

If we had had more time, we could have had dinner together. If I had wanted a fast car, I wouldn’t have bought this one.

Result clause expressing an unreal situation in the present:

If you hadn’t drunk so much, you wouldn’t be feeling sick. If we’d left on time, we’d already be there.

 

 

1.2.    Non-affirmative constructions Negative constructions

Negative expressions in English are formed by adding the adverb not after the auxiliary verb. Examples (the contracted forms, where possible, are included in parentheses):

Present continuous

I am reading the paper – I am not reading the paper.

Past continuous

He was driving too fast – He was not (wasn’t) driving too fast.

Present perfect

I have already had breakfast – I have not (haven’t) had breakfast yet.

Present perfect continuous

They have been running – They have not (haven’t) been running.

Past perfect

He said he had done it – He said he had not (hadn’t) done it.

Past perfect continuous

I realized she had been wearing shoes – I realized she had not (hadn’t) been wearing shoes.

In the case of the simple present and simple past tenses, the auxiliaries do or does (simple present) and did (simple past) must be placed after the subject; in both cases, the original verb then takes on the bare infinitive form. However, an important exception is that the auxiliaries do, does and did are never used with the verb be.

Simple present

They live in Torà – They do not (don’t) live in Torà.

He works in Sabadell – He does not (doesn’t) work in Sabadell. You are funny – You are not (aren’t) funny.

Simple past

We saw them – We did not (didn’t) see them. He was angry – He was not (wasn’t) angry.

 

Remember too that the modal auxiliaries, which we will study in section Sy 5.7., do not require the use of do, does or did. Examples:

We can make the fire – We cannot (can’t) make the fire.

I will help you tomorrow – I will not (won’t) help you tomorrow. You should see her again – You should not (shouldn’t) see her again.

Affirmative yes-no questions

Affirmative yes-no questions in English are formed by inverting the subject and the auxiliary verb.

Present continuous

You are reading the paper. – Are you reading the paper?

Past continuous

He was driving too fast. – Was he driving too fast?

Present perfect

They have already had breakfast. – Have they had breakfast yet?

Present perfect continuous

They have been running. – Have they been running?

Past perfect

He had done it. – Had he done it?

Past perfect continuous

She had been wearing shoes. – Had she been wearing shoes?

Simple present

They live in Torà. – Do they live in Torà?

He works in Sabadell. – Does he work in Sabadell? You are sleepy. – Are you sleepy?

Simple past

We saw them. – Did we see them? He was angry. – Was he angry?

Negative yes-no questions

Negative yes-no questions in English are formed in two ways. The first, which is used mostly in written English, is constructed auxiliary + subject + not + verb. The second form, used mostly in oral English, is constructed contraction of the auxiliary and not + subject + verb. (See section Sp 2.1. for a list of the possible contractions.)

Present continuous

Are you not reading the paper? or Aren’t you reading the paper?

Past continuous

Was he not driving too fast? or Wasn’t he driving too fast?

Present perfect

Have they not had breakfast yet? or Haven’t they had breakfast yet?

 

Present perfect continuous

Have they not been running? or Haven’t they been running?

Past perfect

Had he not done it? or Hadn’t he done it?

Past Perfect Continuous

Had she not been wearing shoes? or Hadn’t she been wearing shoes?

Simple present

Do they not live in Torà? or Don’t they live in Torà?

Does he not work in Sabadell? or Doesn’t he work in Sabadell? Are you not sleepy? or Aren’t you sleepy?

Simple past

Did we not see them? or Didn’t we see them? Was he not angry? or Wasn’t he angry?

Remember too that the modal auxiliaries, which we will study in section Sy 5.7., do not require the use of do, does or did. Examples:

Can we not make the fire? or Can’t we make the fire?

Will he not help you tomorrow? or Won’t he help you tomorrow? Should you not see her again? or Shouldn’t you see her again?

Remember that, as elsewhere, in negative questions, the contraction of am and not is not possible. Therefore, in informal English, the form aren’t I is used. Examples:

Am I not your husband? or Aren’t I your husband? Am I not coming too? or Aren’t I coming too?

 

 

1.3.    Question tags and short answers

English allows for the forming of certain questions in a shortened format. The following section looks at two ways this is possible and how they are used.

 

 

1.3.1.    Question tags

Question tags are used in English to question or confirm a statement, turning the overall statement into a question. If the statement is affirmative, then the question tag will consist of the first two words of a negative question (translated in C_ATALAN, oi que sí?); if the statement is negative, the question tag will consist of the first two words of an affirmative question (translated in C_ATALAN, oi que no?). Note that the first half of the statement is never in the form of a question. Examples:

You know each other, don’t you?

(This is the same as saying: You know each other. Don’t you know each other?) The train hasn’t left yet, has it?

(This is the same as saying: The train hasn’t left yet. Has it left yet?) They are sleeping, aren’t they?

 

You can come tomorrow, can’t you? They won’t see me, will they?

It’s dangerous, isn’t it? or It isn’t dangerous, is it?

 

 

1.3.2.    Short answers

In English, when a short answer to a question is given, it usually takes the form yes,

+ pronoun + auxiliary, or no, + pronoun + negative contraction. Examples:

Are you tired? Yes I am or No, I’m not.

Has she been dancing? Yes, she has or No, she hasn’t. Haven’t they finished? No, they haven’t or Yes, they have.

Can’t they give you some help? No, they can’t or Yes, they can.

 

 

1.4.    Use of interrogative adverbs

The interrogative adverbs in English are where, when, why and how. The first three correspond to the C_ATALAN adverbs on, quan and per què, respectively, and the fourth always corresponds to the C_ATALAN com when this means de quina manera.

As is the case in C_ATALAN, the interrogative adverbs are placed at the head of the sentence. Examples:

Where are my bags? When is the party? Why didn’t you stop? How do you feel?

Keep in mind that when these adverbs are used in indirect questions, the inversion doesn’t take place. Examples:

I don’t know where they’ve gone.

I don’t remember when the party is. Do you know why he is angry?

 

 

1.5.    Use of interrogative pronouns and adjectives

There are three interrogative pronouns in English: who and whom (qui), and what (què). The three interrogative adjectives, which and what (quin -a), and whose (de qui), can also be used as pronouns if the noun they modify is understood. Note that what can be used as both a pronoun meaning què and an adjective meaning quin -a.

Interrogative pronouns as subjects or objects

When an interrogative pronoun (or a noun modified by an interrogative adjective) is the subject of the sentence, there is a syntax change: the pronoun is followed directly by the verb and there is no inversion. Compare the following two sentences.

Who as object:

Who do you love? (you is the subject, who is the direct object).

Who as subject:

Who loves you? (who is the subject, you is the direct object).

 

Examples:

Who did the tourists follow? Who followed the tourists? Who have they seen?

Who has seen them?

What caused the gas leak? (What was the cause of the leak?)

What did the gas leak cause? (What were the consequences of the gas leak?)

Which jacket do you want? Which key opens this door?

Interrogative pronouns as prepositional objects

Two constructions are used when an interrogative pronoun is a prepositional object. The first, which is far less frequent, is preposition + whom + auxiliary + subject + verb. The second, which we will use exclusively from now on, is who + auxiliary + subject [+ complements] + verb + preposition. Compare the following two examples.

Very formal: With whom did you go there?

More usual: Who did you go there with?

Examples:

Who are they talking about?

Who did you buy the mushrooms from? What does it depend on?

It is good to keep in mind that English never translates the C_ATALAN preposition a when it comes before a direct object, but it must always be translated when it comes before an indirect object. Compare the following.

A qui ajuda?

Who does she help? (The preposition is not translated because it comes before the direct object.)

A qui envia cartes?

Who does she send letters to? (The preposition is translated because it comes before the indirect object.)

The difference between the adjectives which and what

Both which and what can be used as adjectives when referring to a particular one or ones. The difference is that which implies a limited choice – that is, the speaker feels they have a good idea of what the possibilities are, whereas what is used for unlimited, unknown possibilities. Compare the following:

What time is it? (unlimited possibilities)

The movie shows at 7:30, 9:45 and midnight; which do you want to go? (limited) Examples:

What problems have you had? (unlimited possibilities)

Which shirt should I wear? (limited)

What is your address? (unlimited possibilities)

Which channel is the programme on? (limited)

 

The uses of whose and whom

English has a genitive form of the pronoun who, whose, which has no C_ATALAN equivalent. It is used to inquire about the possessor of an object or objects and, because it is an adjective, it precedes the noun it modifies. Its use is very similar to that of the possessive pronouns: for example, compare It is his book (És el seu llibre) with It is whose book? (De qui és el llibre?). However, because it is a question, the more common construction for the latter sentence is Whose book is it? Finally we might mention that the syntax for whose is exactly the same as that for which.

Compare:

Which horse won? Whose horse won?

Examples:

Whose glass is this? Whose papers are these? Whose cars were they?

The pronoun whom is the objective form of the pronoun who, corresponding to the objective personal pronoun (him, her, it or they). It is almost never used in modern English. As a direct object it is almost always substituted with who. For example, it is much more natural to say Who did you see? than Whom did you see? The pronoun whom is often seen after a preposition, since to many speakers the combination prep. + who sounds wrong, though the preposition is more commonly transferred to the end of the expressions (see above). Finally, there is one expression in which whom is always used: quantity adj/adv + of whom. Examples:

We met many men, most of whom were on vacation. There were several writers there, some of whom we knew.

 

1.6.    Interrogative adverbial expressions How much, how many

The expressions how much and how many inquire about quantities; the former modifies noncount nouns and verbs and the latter is restricted to the modification of plural count nouns. Examples:

Modifying noncount nouns:

How much wine do you drink every day? How much work have you done?

Modifying verbs:

How much do you drink every day? How much do you weigh?

Modifying plural count nouns:

How many books have you read? How many children go to this school?

Remember that, unlike in C_ATALAN, in English people (gent) is plural and money (diners) is singular.

 

How many people were there? How much money do you have?

How far

The expression how far is used to inquire about distances and corresponds to two C_ATALAN expressions, (a) quina distància and fins on. Note too that where C_ATALAN uses the verb haver-hi, English uses the combination it + be (see also Sy 4.2.3.). Examples:

How far is it from here to Sallent? How far is the Earth from the Sun?

How far is the camera supposed to be from the object? How far is the beach?

How far did they take you? How far do you want to walk?

How often

The expression how often is used to inquire about frequency and corresponds to  the C_ATALAN expression cada quan. Examples:

How often do you go there?

How often are we supposed to clean the filters? How often should I drink coffee?

How long

The expression how long is used in two contexts: when it inquires about time periods it corresponds to the C_ATALAN expression quant (temps) (and variants), and this is the sense we will study in this section. However, it can also be used to inquire about length and we will study this meaning in the following section.

The correspondence between how long and its C_ATALAN equivalents is a bit complicated and is easier to understand if we consider the difference between quant (temps) and quant (temps) fa. The former is translated quite straightforwardly. Examples:

How long do the batteries last?

How long did you have to wait for them?

On the other hand, the expression quant (temps) fa is translated into English in three ways.

Affirmative expressions in the present tense are translated how long + present perfect or present perfect continuous. Examples:

How long have you had this car? How long have you been here?

How long have you studied/been studying English?

Negative expressions in the present tense are usually translated how long has it been since

+ present perfect. Examples:

How long has it been since you’ve been there? How long has it been since you have eaten meat?

Expressions in the past tense are translated how long ago + simple past. Examples:

How long ago did they arrive? How long ago were they there?

How long ago did you have lunch? (not How long ago have you had lunch?)

 

How + adj. + be

When inquiring about the height, length, width or depth of an object, English generally uses an expression of the type how + adjective + be, where C_ATALAN uses quina + noun + tenir/fer. Examples:

How tall are you? How tall is the Eiffel Tower? How long is this pencil?

How wide is this sheet of paper? How deep is Loch Ness?

The difference between tall and high is somewhat ambiguous. The adjective tall is used for people, animals and objects that are significantly taller than they are wide. So we can have      tall people, a tall dog, a tall tower, tall trees, tall buildings, etc., but a mountain is generally high because it is as wide as it is tall. On the other hand, only high can be used to describe something that is above, not touching, the ground. So we say a plane flies high,    that lightbulb is high up, and a window-washer works high above the ground. Here is a curious example: Mt Everest is the world’s highest peak, but Mauna Kea is the tallest mountain on Earth. Mauna Kea is an undersea mountain and, since its height is not measured from ground level, it is referred to as being tall.

Finally when inquiring about someone’s age, English uses the expression how old + be + noun. Examples:

How old are your parents?

How old were they when they married?

 

 

1.7.     Modal verbs

We can conveniently divide the modal verbs into three classifications: modal auxiliaries, modal idioms and marginal modals. The most important of these are the modal auxiliaries, but because of their special limitations there are contexts in which they cannot be used, and in these cases their associated modal idioms come into play. What’s more, we will also look at two modal idioms that have meanings independent of the modal auxiliaries: would rather and had better. Finally we should mention the two marginal modals, dare and need, so called because they can be used as both modal auxiliaries and regular verbs. 

Characteristics of the modal auxiliaries

The nine modal auxiliaries – can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might and must

–   have the following identifying characteristics.

They have a single form: that is, they have no infinitive, -s form, gerund, simple past or participle.

They are always used with a bare infinitive, never the full infinitive. They can refer to the present, past or future.

They cannot be combined.

What’s more, because they are auxiliaries, they form negative expressions by adding the adverb not – in fact, all the modal auxiliaries can be contracted with not – and they are inverted with the subject to form questions. They can also be used in question tags and short answers (see Sy 5.3.).

 

1.7.1.     Can, could, be able to, be allowed to

The modal auxiliaries can and could are used to express ability and possibility, to ask for and to give permission, and to make offers. They are nearly always translated by a corresponding form of the C_ATALAN verb poder. Examples:

I can help you now/tomorrow.

I could drive when I was sixteen. We can/could call her tomorrow. Can we park here?

You can stay out as late as you like. Can I help you?

When speaking of ability, English will often use can where C_ATALAN will use the verb saber. Examples:

I can sew = I know how to sew.

Can you type? = Do you know how to type?

Can

The modal auxiliary can is generally used to express ability or possibility in the present and can also express these concepts in the future. However, when the future is speculative, the combination will be able to is generally used. Moreover, when referring to future permission, we use will be allowed to.

Present: I can go there now.

Present: I can carry three of those boxes. Future: We can pay you tomorrow.

Speculative future: Soon we’ll be able to (not Soon we can) offer more services. Speculative future: When the fog lifts we’ll be able to see where we are.

Present permission: I can use Father’s tools whenever I like. Future permission: Next year we will be allowed to leave early.

Could

The modal auxiliary could is used first of all to express general ability or possibility in the past. Note that specific abilities in the past are generally expressed using was/were able to and that the present perfect tense almost always uses the have/has been able to construction.

General ability or possibility in the past

I could speak French when I was younger. Nothing could be done.

Specific ability or possibility in the past

I was able to (not I could) establish two facts.

They were able to (not They could) confirm that the payment had been made.

Present perfect

Have you been able to find another flat? We haven’t been able to see them yet.

 

However, when the past specific ability or possibility is negative, then the use of couldn’t

is generally preferred.

We couldn’t (more usual than weren’t able to) get into the house. He couldn’t (more usual than wasn’t able to) pay his bills.

The modal auxiliary could is also commonly used in conditional expressions. This use is much more common than the equivalent construction, would be able to.

If I had more money I could travel a lot more.

If you moved to Berkeley we could see each other more often.

The construction could have + participle is used to describe unrealized hypothetical actions in the past.

If we had had more time we could have played longer. If they hadn’t hurried they could have missed the train.

Finally, could is used in polite suggestions and requests.

If you’re feeling tired we could always stay home. Could you please not smoke in here?

Be able to

As we have seen, the construction be able to is employed in English when the use of can or could is impossible. In most cases, this is because we need a verb form, such as an infinitive or participle, that the modal auxiliaries cannot provide. Here are some typical examples of the use of be able to.

When an infinitive is needed

If no one else calls, I’ll be able to finish this evening. The police want to be able to trace mobile phone calls. You’ll have to be able to deal with children.

You should be able to tell the difference between the two photos. I used to be able to touch my toes without bending my knees.

When a gerund is needed

I like being able to walk to work.

Being able to speak English is more and more important.

When a participle is needed

We haven’t been able to find a replacement.

It would have helped if I had been able to speak with her.

Simple past

I’m glad you were able to see the programme.

Be allowed to

Because the modal auxiliaries can and could can express other concepts besides permission, we sometimes use the construction be allowed to to make it clear that we are talking about permission and not ability, possibility, etc. Consider the following example.

He can drive his father’s car.

 

As it stands, this sentence can mean either that he is able to drive the car, or that he has permission to drive the car. The use of be allowed to removes this ambiguity.

He is allowed to drive his father’s car.

We are not allowed to smoke on the playground. Were you allowed to express your opinions?

Cars are not allowed to park near the police station.

Finally, when referring to specific permission given in the past, the form be allowed to

must be used. Example:

Last night I was allowed to (not I could) lead the prayer.

 

 

1.7.2.    May and might

The most important uses of may and might are to express possibility. The expression I may/might go means It is possible that I will go. When referring to the present, in modern English, may and might are basically synonymous, though some speakers consider that the use of might indicates a slightly lesser possibility. However, when referring to the past, might can have two meanings whereas may has only one. The examples in the following sections should make this clear.

In the final section, we will briefly touch on the use of may to request permission.

May and might in the present

It may/might rain tomorrow. I may/might be a little late.

There may/might be many people in favour of the proposal. Anna may/might not know the answer.

Note that when the reference is to a present or future continuing action, in English the continuous tense is generally required. Examples:

They may/might be waiting for us now/tomorrow. (Not They may wait for us.) They may/might be having dinner (now/when we arrive tomorrow). (Not They may have dinner.)

Note that first conditional expressions can use either may or might, but that second conditional expressions must use might. Examples:

If you speak more slowly, we may/might be able to understand you. If you spoke more slowly, we might be able to understand you.

May and might in the past

When referring to possibilities in the past, we use the constructions may have + participle and might have + participle. The former always indicates that the speaker is uncertain whether the past possibility became reality or not. On the other hand, the expression might have + participle is ambiguous; it can be either a synonym for may have + participle, indicating that we don’t know whether the possibility came about or not, or it can have a similar meaning to the could have + participle construction, describing unrealized hypothetical actions in the past.

 

Examples in which we don’t know if the possibility occurred or not.

I don’t see them; they may/might have missed the train. We may/might have taken a wrong turn back there.

I’m afraid that I may/might have offended him.

Examples in which we know that the possibility did not occur. Note that these are all cases of the third conditional.

If I had known that, I might have acted differently.

If we had been alone, I might have told her what I really thought.

He might have learned even more about their language if he hadn’t fallen ill.

May and can to request permission

The use of may to request permission is generally restricted to formal uses. As a rule of thumb, we can say that if in C_ATALAN we would address the person as vostè or vós, in English we will request permission using may, whereas we use can when we would address the person as tu. Examples:

May I help you? (Formal)

Can I help you? (Informal) 

Can I help you? (Informal)

 

 

1.7.3.     Will, shall, be going to, be to

The modal auxiliaries will and shall, and the modal idioms be going to and be to can all be used to refer to the future. In the case of be going to and be to, there are no alternative meanings – that is, these modal idioms always indicate some future activity or state, and their study was thus completed in sections Sy 5.1.6. On the other hand, the modal auxiliaries will and shall are used in other non-future contexts, and it is these uses that we will study in this section.

Non-future uses of will

The most important non-future use of the modal auxiliary will is expressing volition or lack of volition in non-affirmative contexts. In these cases, the use of will is the same as the constructions am/are/is willing to, in questions, and refuse + full infinitive, in negations. Examples:

Will you (= Are you willing to) work weekends? I won’t (= I refuse to) date men who smoke.

The will form is also used in certain colloquial impersonal expressions, expressing a lack of will on the part of inanimate objects. Examples:

The car won’t start.

My guitar won’t stay in tune.

We can also use will to refer to latent possibility. For example:

How fast will this car go?

Finally, will is used colloquially, emphasized and without contraction, to express annoyance. For example:

He will have his own way.

 

Non-future use of shall

There is only one non-future use of shall. It is used in a kind of ‘imperative-interrogative’ context to offer suggestions and only in the first person. Examples:

Shall we dance?

Shall I open the window?

Note that this use is always oral and is limited to cases in which there is a certain familiarity between the speaker and hearer: that is, if two people are unacquainted, the shall form would sound somewhat presumptuous, and the more formal Would you like to dance? and Do you mind if I open the window? should be used.

Would, used to

The most common use of the modal auxiliary would is in conditional expressions, a use that we have already studied in section Sy 5.1.7. However, would is also used, synonymously with the modal idiom used to, when referring to repeated actions in the past, as well as in other less important contexts. What’s more, used to is used in three other contexts, as we will see.

Would and used to describing repeated actions in the past

Both the modal auxiliary would and the modal idiom used to can be used to describe routine repeated actions in the past. Note that, when would is used in this context, it must describe actions, not states, and be accompanied by a time clause indicating when the past action occurred. (The same is true of the C_ATALAN solia and variants.) As we will see, the used to form is not thus limited. Examples:

When I was young I [used to/would] swim every day.

Small clinics that doctors used to set up in a room are giving way to large clinics. When I was working in Girona I [used to/would] have lunch at three.

When we are referring to a series of repeated actions in the past, it is more natural to use

would than used to. Example:

On Sundays Joan used to get up early. He’d walk as far as the town where his friends would be waiting for him. They’d have breakfast together in the bar and then he’d ride his motorbike to the cove, where he would swim and

sun-bathe until it was time for lunch.

Other non-conditional uses of would

As is the case of the modal auxiliary will, would can be used in certain other non-conditional contexts. The most important of these is to express a lack of volition in the past, equivalent to the expression refused + full infinitive. For example:

They wouldn’t (= They refused to) let us in.

The would form is also used in certain impersonal expressions, expressing a lack of will on the part of inanimate objects. For example:

I tried to open the door but the key wouldn’t turn.

 

Finally, would is used colloquially, emphasized and without contraction, to express annoyance. For example:

You would forget!

Used to meaning no longer

The most important use of the modal idiom used to is to describe past actions or states that no longer continue. It corresponds to the C_ATALAN construction abans + pretèrit imperfect. Unlike the would form (see above), it can be used to describe former states and does not need to be accompanied by a time clause. Examples:

It used to be a bank.

There used to be a restaurant on this corner.

Negative and interrogative constructions normally use the auxiliary did. Examples:

He didn’t use to talk so much. Did you use to go out with Sara?

Uses of be used to and get used to

The constructions be used to and get used to are not modal idioms, but we include them here because of the obvious confusion that results from the use of used to in two completely different contexts. It is perhaps helpful to note that be used to means the same as be accustomed to and get used to equals get accustomed to; they correspond, respectively, to the C_ATALAN estar acostumat a and acostumar-se a. Note that in these constructions the word to is a preposition and, if followed by a verb, requires the gerund. Examples:

I’m used to the noise; it no longer bothers me. I’m used to working at night.

I’m getting used to the rain.

I still haven’t gotten [AmE] used to having dinner so late.

Finally, it is worth noting that English has no equivalent to the present tense use of the verb acostumar when it describes habitual action or states in the present; a paraphrase must be used. Examples:

They usually arrive at nine. It usually rains in November.

 

 

1.7.4.    Must, have to, be supposed to, should, ought to, have got to

Obligation in English can be expressed using various constructions, most of which add some shade of meaning to the obligation. All are translated by some form of the C_ATALAN periphrasis haver de. Perhaps the easiest method of organizing these various forms is by verb tense, which is what we shall now proceed to do.

Obligation (and prohibition) in the present tense

English has four constructions to express various kinds of affirmative obligation in the present, which we will call (somewhat arbitrarily) general, emphatic, impersonal and informal.

 

General: have to

The have to form is the most common and most generic way of expressing obligation. In BrE the use of have to implies that someone else has imposed the obligation, though this is not the case in AmE. In the negative and interrogative the auxiliaries do and does must be used, referring to a lack of obligation, rather than prohibition. Examples:

We have to (or We must) fight against this prejudice. The doctor says I have to quit smoking.

Do we have to get up early tomorrow?

You do not have to present any documentation to accredit it.

Emphatic: must

In both AmE and BrE the use of the modal auxiliary must often emphasizes the authority or desire of the speaker. Moreover, in BrE, it implies that it is the speaker who has decided that something is necessary. In AmE, the must form is only used in formal contexts. In BrE the use of must in interrogative sentences is less common than have to, and generally has you as the subject; in the negative, mustn’t expresses prohibition in a rather emphatic way. (For a less authoritative way to express prohibition, see both the use of shouldn’t, and not supposed to in the following sections.) Examples:

(BrE) We must hurry or we’ll be late. (AmE) We have to hurry... (BrE) We must be coherent with the model. (AmE) We have to be… (BrE and AmE) Fines must be paid within thirty days.

Must you leave now? We’d be so happy if you stayed. You mustn’t blame yourselves.

Impersonal: be supposed to

The be supposed to construction is used to indicate that the obligation comes from someone other than the speaker. It can also be used to speak of what is done as a matter of course. In the negative, it is the most polite way of expressing a prohibition; it implies that it isn’t the speaker who makes the rules, but that the prohibition comes from some other source, such as society as a whole. Finally, when used in the first person, it can imply that the speaker doesn’t really intend to fulfil the obligation. Examples:

Mum says you’re supposed to come in for dinner.

Do you remember how long we’re supposed to cook the rice? When are we supposed to hand in our homework?

You’re not supposed to turn left here.

We’re supposed to make a reservation, but I doubt it’s really necessary.

Informal: have got to

The have got to construction has the same meaning as have to. It can only be used in the present tense and is generally limited to oral expressions. In informal AmE, got to can be contracted to gotta and the auxiliary have can be suppressed. Examples:

I’ve got to (or I’ve gotta or I gotta) get some more money. We’ve got to (or We’ve gotta or We gotta) do better than that.

 

Obligation in the future

Obligation in the future is generally expressed in English using the synonymous constructions will have to + bare infinitive or be going to have to + bare infinitive. (In informal English, going to can be contracted to gonna and have to is pronounced /haf tə/.)

We’ll have to (or We’re going to have to) finish tomorrow. You’ll have to wait (or You’re going to have to wait).

Obligation in the conditional: should and ought to

Obligation in the conditional in English is nearly always expressed using the construction would have to + bare infinitive and the sense of this form is always hypothetical. Unfortunately, the corresponding C_ATALAN construction, hauria de and variants, can express not only a hypothesis, but also advice, moral obligation and what seems likely and, in the latter three cases, English uses either the modal auxiliary should or the modal idiom ought to. The following examples should make this clear.

Hypothesis (conditional sense)

If you wanted to travel to China, you would have to get a visa.

Advice

You should (or You ought to) study more.

Moral obligation

We should (or We ought to) love our fellow man.

What seems likely

They should (or They ought to) be there by now.

Therefore, different expressions such as What would I have to do? (a hypothetical question) and What should I do? (a question requesting advice) are both translated by the same C_ATALAN expression: Què hauria de fer? This needs to be taken into account when translating from C_ATALAN to English. Examples:

We would have to leave early if it started to snow.

We should (or We ought to) accept that the web is the dominant infrastructure. These exercises should be easy for you.

Note that the modal idiom ought to is more often used in the affirmative; questions and negations commonly use should. Examples:

Should the police have authority in these matters? (More usual than Ought the police to).

References should not be used in footnotes. (More usual than References ought not to).

In the past, the hypothetical conditional is expressed would have had to + bare infinitive and the various meanings expressed by should are expressed should have + participle. Note that in this case there is no ambiguity, since C_ATALAN expresses theses concepts differently as well. Examples:

If John hadn’t done it, I would have had to do it. You should have studied more.

 

Obligation in the past tenses

There are three possibilities for talking about past obligations. The first is the construction had to + bare infinitive and describes a past obligation that has been carried out. It generally corresponds to the C_ATALAN periphrastic form of haver de. The second, the construction was/were supposed to + bare infinitive, describes past actions that were not carried out and corresponds to the C_ATALAN imperfect form of haver de. Examples:

Yesterday I had to go to Barcelona.

Yesterday I was supposed to go to Barcelona, but I stayed home. He didn’t have to take his final exam.

He wasn’t supposed to interfere. (But he did.)

Finally, we can use the present perfect form of have to (have/has had to + bare infinitive) to talk about repeated past obligations or a past obligation that is relevant to the present. This construction corresponds to the indefinite tense of haver de. Examples:

I’ve had to do a lot of homework this quarter. What have you had to deal with?

Here is your paper; I’ve had to make a few changes.

 

 

1.7.5.    Would rather

When talking about preferences, English most often uses the modal idiom would rather:    eg I would (I’d) rather stay home (M’estimo més quedar-me a casa). The verb prefer is also possible: I prefer to stay home. Examples:

I’d rather have red wine than white. I’d rather not talk about it.

Would you rather watch TV?

I’d rather sleep than watch cricket.

If our preference is that someone else do something, the construction would rather [+

that] + noun + simple past is used. Examples:

We’d rather [that] he had more experience. I’d rather [that] you came tomorrow.

They’d rather [that] we didn’t park here. Would you rather [that] I told the police?

 

 

1.7.6.    Had better

The construction had better + bare infinitive is used to refer to necessary, sometimes urgent action, and corresponds to the C_ATALAN val més que. It is stronger than should (see Sy 5.7.) and can sometimes even have a threatening overtone. The had is usually abbreviated to ’d. Examples:

We’d better save our money. You’d better have another drink. You’d better be quiet.

They’d better not say that to her face. He’d better not come back here.

 

1.7.7.     Be about to

In English we use the construction be about to + bare infinitive to refer to an imminent action. It corresponds to the C_ATALAN expression estar  a  punt  de  +  infinitive,  which  should not be confused with the similar estar a punt per a + infinitive (in English, to be ready to + bare infinitive). Examples:

I can’t talk now; we’re about to have lunch.

Can you make it quick? I was just about to leave.

In negative constructions it indicates a firm unwillingness to do something on the part of the subject. Examples:

We’re not about to change our minds.

I’m not about to let her make a fool of me.

 

 

1.7.8.    Dare and need

In non-affirmative contexts, the marginal modals dare (atrevir-se) and need (necessitar, caldre) can be used both as modal auxiliaries and as normal lexical verbs. Note that, when dare is used as a lexical verb, it can take as a complement either the bare infinitive or the full infinitive.

 

 

Used as modal auxiliaries	Used as normal lexical verbs
Dare she tell him?	Does she dare (to) tell him?
She daren’t do anything wrong.	She doesn’t dare (to) do anything wrong.
Need we be there early?	Do we need to be there early?
You needn’t lock the door.	You don’t need to lock the door.

 

 

 

 

In BrE, the needn’t form generally indicates a lack of obligation, whereas the lexical form

don’t/doesn’t need to is used more for a lack of necessity.

The lexical verb dare can also take a personal complement, in which case it corresponds to the C_ATALAN desafiar. For example:

I dare you to eat a worm.

Only the lexical form of dare can be used in the past, whereas need can be used in the construction needn’t have + participle. Some speakers detect a difference between a sentence such as You needn’t have done it and You didn’t have to do it. The first indicates that someone has done something that was unnecessary, whereas the second indicates that someone did not have the obligation to do something and therefore, presumably, did not do it.

 

 

1.8.    Prepositional verbs

As is the case in C_ATALAN, some English verbs require prepositions before their complements, and it is often the case that the meaning of the preposition has nothing to do with its normal lexical meaning. For example, in English we rely on someone (refiar-se d’algú), though the

 

lexical meaning of on (sobre, damunt, etc.) seems inappropriate. Similarly, there are verbs that require a preposition in English whose counterparts in C_ATALAN are transitive: for example, in English we wait for someone (esperar algú), but the preposition is not used in C_ATALAN.

There are literally hundreds of prepositional verbs in English, and a complete list is beyond the scope of this study. Instead we will only mention forty or fifty of the most important prepositional verbs and divide them into four groups.

Prepositional verbs whose prepositions keep their basic meanings

I agree with you.

Prepositional verbs whose prepositions do not keep their basic meanings

This depends on you.

Prepositional verbs that are not prepositional in C_ATALAN

We listen to the radio.

Prepositional verbs whose prepositions do not keep the meaning of the verb

He fell for the scam.

As an aid to Catalan speakers, later in this section we will offer a list of C_ATALAN prepositional verbs that are not prepositional in English. For example, gaudir de = enjoy (Gaudeixo de la vida = I enjoy life).

For a more detailed study of English prepositional verbs and their relation to C_ATALAN.

Prepositional verbs whose prepositions relate directly to their C_ATALAN equivalents

The following table lists some of the most important English prepositional verbs whose prepositions maintain their basic meaning.

 

agree with	meet with
arrive at	pass through
arrive in	play with
belong to	read about
care about	refer to
complain about/of	speak about/of
fight for	subscribe to
forget about	suffer from
get to	talk about/of
know about/of	turn into
insist on	work on
lead to	worry about

 

The difference between arrive at and arrive in is that the former is generally used for locations, such as train and bus stations, schools, theatres, etc., whereas the latter is used more commonly before place names.

The verb care about means preocupar-se de in the sense of having a regard for something, or that it matters to you.

The verb get to means to arrive at.

The verb lead to always has an impersonal subject.

The verb meet with means trobar-se amb in the sense of having a meeting or getting

 

together for some purpose. When trobar-se amb means meeting by chance, the preposition

with is not used.

The difference between the prepositions of and about, when following the verbs complain, know, speak or talk is that the combinations with of imply the simple mentioning of a subject, whereas the combinations with about imply discussion. However, this is a generalization and there can be exceptions.

Prepositional verbs whose prepositions do not relate directly to their C_ATALAN equivalents

The following table lists some of the most important English prepositional verbs whose prepositions do not maintain their basic meaning.

 

 

ask about – preguntar per (algú) beware of – anar amb compte amb count on – comptar amb deal with – tractar de, ocupar-se de depend on – dependre de dream about/of – somiar amb (or en) fit into – formar part de graduate from – llicenciar-se a laugh at – riure’s de leave for – marxar cap a (un lloc)

live on – viure de (alimentar-se de) look like – assemblar-se a pay by – pagar amb (per mitjà de) rely on – refiar-se de run into – xocar contra steal from – robar a (algú, una entitat) travel by – viatjar en (or amb) trip over – ensopegar amb (sentit físic) vouch for – respondre de (fer-se garant)

 

 

The verb beware of is normally used in the imperative.

The verb deal with means ocupar-se in the senses of taking action on or being concerned with. It means tractar de in the sense of conducting oneself with others or doing business with someone.

The difference between think about and think of is that the former implies rumination and contemplation, whereas the latter implies simply having something present in the mind. Remember both these verbs can also mean to have an opinion.

Prepositional verbs that are not prepositional in C_ATALAN

The following table lists some of the most important English prepositional verbs that are translated in C_ATALAN by transitive verbs.

 

 

appeal to – atraure	look into – investigar
apply for – sol·licitar	look like – semblar
approve of – aprovar	pay for – pagar
ask for – demanar (sol·licitar)	plan on – proposar-se/anticipar
check on – comprovar, verificar, controlar	run after – empaitar
compensate for – compensar	search for – cercar
deal with – tractar (manejar)	stand for – representar/defensar/tolerar
focus on – enfocar	step on – trepitjar
listen to – escoltar	substitute for – substituir
look at – mirar	wait for – esperar (restar)
look for – cercar	wait on – atendre

 

The verb appeal to means atraure in the sense of being attractive or interesting.

The verb apply for is generally used for scholarships, jobs, credit cards, etc.: ie, in situations in which you would normally have to submit an application.

The verb ask for means demanar in the sense of requesting something. When it means preguntar the preposition is not used. Examples: We asked the waiter for the bill; We asked the waiter a question.

The verb look at means mirar when what is observed is static; we use watch when what is observed is active. So we look at paintings, but we watch a football match.

We use the verb pay for when the object is the thing acquired, but the preposition is not used when what is paid is money, debts, the rent, etc. So, I paid for the wine, but I paid the rent.

The verb stand for means representar in the sense of representing by a symbol: for example, The letters BBC stand for British Broadcasting Corporation. On the other hand, it means defensar in the sense of supporting a cause or opinion: for example, He stands for honesty and fair play.

Prepositional verbs whose prepositions change the meaning of the verb

Although it is somewhat unusual, there are prepositions that change the basic meaning of the verbs they follow. Here is a list of some of the most important.

 

 

account for – explicar allow for – tenir en compte come across – trobar (per casualitat) come by – adquirir do without – prescindir de drive at – voler dir, voler anar a parar fall for – deixar-se enganyar per/enamorar-se de get over – superar (una situació o un esdeveniment traumàtic)/fer-se a la idea/recuperar-se de

go over – repassar pick on – criticar injustament, victimitzar relate to – empatitzar amb run into – trobar-se amb (per casualitat)/xocar contra take to – afeccionar-se a/aprovar touch on – mencionar breument

 

The object of the first sense of fall for is always the scam or swindle, never the person who perpetrates it.

C_ATALAN prepositional verbs that are not prepositional in English

The following table lists some of the most important C_ATALAN prepositional verbs that are translated in English by transitive verbs.

 

acostar-se a – approach	gaudir de – enjoy
adonar-se de – notice, realize	jugar a – play
assistir a – attend	marxar de – leave
casar-se amb – marry	penedir-se de – regret
entrar a – enter	telefonar a – phone
equivaler a – equal	trucar a – call
fiar-se de – trust

 

The verb casar-se is translated by get married when used without a preposition: Vol casar-se =

He wants to get married; Vol casar-se amb tu = He wants to marry you.

In abstract senses, we can use enter into: for example, He entered into politics or Financial matters entered into the discussion.

 

 

1.9.    Adverbial verbs (phrasal verbs)

Adverbial verbs, popularly called phrasal verbs, are verbs that combine a verb and an adverb into a single verbal unit. A simple example is run away (fugir). Although there are English manuals that group prepositional verbs (see Sy 5.8.) along with the adverbials, there are several good reasons for not doing so.

Prepositional verbs are generally translated in C_ATALAN by prepositional verbs – eg talk about

= parlar de, whereas adverbial verbs are generally translated by either simple verbs or locutions. For example, depend on, a prepositional verb, is translated dependre de, whereas call off, an adverbial verb, is translated anul·lar.

When an adverbial verb is transitive, its object can usually be placed either between the two elements or after the second. For example, She put on her dress = She put her dress on (Es va posar el vestit). With prepositional verbs, the object always follows the preposition. Note   too that when the object of an adverbial verb is a  pronoun,  the pronoun  must come between the two elements: She put it on, not She put on it.

When a verb and an adverb combine to form an adverbial verb, the result is often a verb whose meaning is completely different from that of the two elements considered separately. For example, go over means repassar. This happens much less frequently with prepositional verbs.

The translation of adverbial verbs into C_ATALAN is often determined  by  the  adverb,  rather than the verb. For example, the adverbial verbs come back, go back, walk back and run back are all translated by the C_ATALAN verb tornar (tornar cap aquí, tornar cap allà, tornar caminant and tornar corrent).

Finally, a rather high percentage of adverbial verbs have more than one meaning, whereas most prepositional verbs tend to have only one.

Grouping phrasal verbs according to the adverb

English has well over two thousand adverbial verbs with more than three thousand different meanings, and an enumeration of all these is obviously beyond  the  scope  of  the  present  study.  However, there are only about seventeen adverbs that are commonly used to  form  part  of  adverbial verbs and, as we hope to show, there are significant advantages to organizing the adverbial verbs according to these adverbs. We offer first a list of them along with their approximate translations in C_ATALAN. The numbers in parentheses indicate the number of adverbial verbs       of which these adverbs form part in the online dictionary Phrasal verbs traduïts al català. For example, there are nearly 400 different adverbial verbs that include the adverb up, whereas there are only sixteen that include aside.

about (36)	down (143)
across (23)	in (135)
along (24)	off (161)
around (63)	on (104)
aside (16)	out (303)
away (87)	over (64)
back (75)	through (25)
by (23)	up (382)

 

Note that all these adverbs have meanings that have to do with placement or direction. The most easily understood phrasal verbs are those that combine a movement verb with an adverb indicating direction. Here are several examples, along with their C_ATALAN equivalents.

 

 

go across – travessar (d’un costat a l’altre) move along – continuar endavant, circular pass around – fer circular pull aside – apartar estirant put away – desar come back – tornar (cap aquí) drive by – passar conduint go down – baixar (cap allà)

come in – entrar (cap aquí) run off – fugir, marxar corrent move on – continuar endavant bring out – treure (cap aquí) take over – portar (cap allà) pass through – ser de passada walk up – pujar caminant

 

We would like to emphasize again that it is often the adverb of an adverbial verb that determines its translation in C_ATALAN. In other words, the English adverb determines which C_ATALAN verb translates the verb-adverb combination. Moreover, the sense of the English verb is in many cases expressed by a C_ATALAN gerund. Here are five common examples.

 

 

Up	Down
come up – pujar (cap aquí)	come down – baixar (cap aquí)
bring up – pujar (una cosa, cap aquí)	bring down – baixar (una cosa, cap aquí)
drive up – pujar conduint	drive down – baixar conduint
go up – pujar (cap allà)	go down – baixar (cap allà)
run up – pujar corrent	run down – baixar corrent
take up – pujar (una cosa, cap aquí)	take down – baixar (una cosa, cap aquí)
walk up – pujar caminant	walk down – baixar caminant

 

 

In	Out
come in – entrar (cap aquí)	come out – sortir (cap aquí)
bring in – entrar (una cosa, cap aquí)	bring out – treure (una cosa, cap aquí)
drive in – entrar conduint	drive out – sortir conduint
go in – entrar (cap allà)	go out – sortir (cap allà)
run in – entrar corrent	run out – sortir corrent
take in – entrar (una cosa, cap aquí)	take out – treure (una cosa, cap aquí)
walk in – entrar caminant	walk out – sortir caminant

 

 

Back
come back – tornar (cap aquí) bring back – tornar (una cosa, cap aquí) drive back – tornar conduint go back – tornar (cap allà)	run back – tornar corrent take back – tornar (una cosa, cap allà) walk back – tornar caminant

 

Other adverbial meanings

Although the adverbs that form part of adverbial verbs usually describe position or movement, some of them can have other meanings as well. For example, the adverb up sometimes indicates an upward action (eg go up means pujar, anar cap amunt), but it can also express the ideas of completion or destruction. For example, burn up can mean cremar(-se) completament and blow up can mean esclatar or fer esclatar. The following is a list of some adverbs for which this is the case.

Away expresses the idea of disappearance or complete elimination.

Down expresses the idea of reduction or destruction.

Off expresses the idea of disappearance, disconnection or completion.

On expresses the idea of connection or putting two things together. Out expresses the idea of finishing, disappearance or obliteration. Up expresses the idea of finishing or destruction.

Examples:

When surgeons clean a wound, they cut away the dead tissue. Quan els cirurgians netegen una ferida tallen (i descarten) el teixit mort. His house burned down last night.

Anit es va cremar del tot la seva casa.

The pain eased off and completely vanished.

El dolor s’ha alleujat i ha desaparegut del tot.

Hold on tight and don’t let go!

Agafa’t fort i no et deixis anar!

She made a wish and blew out all the candles.

Va demanar un desig i apagà (amb una bufada) totes les espelmes.

They burned up all the evidence.

Van cremar completament totes les proves.

Phrasal verbs whose meanings are unpredictable

Until this point, all the phrasal verbs we have studied have maintained the sense of both the verbs and the adverbs. Unfortunately, a very large number of phrasal verbs have meanings that are completely different from the meanings of the verb and adverb taken separately. Unfortunately also, learning to recognize and understand these verbs is critical, for although many of them have simpler equivalents – for example, raising children and bringing up children are synonymous – English speakers make frequent use of phrasal verbs in both speech and writing. One might say that learning these irrational compound verbs is like learning figures of speech: in the same way that English speakers must learn that fer campana means not to attend, Catalans must learn that turn out can mean resultar.

Here is a small sample of some of the most important phrasal verbs in English. Observe that many have multiple meanings.

 

Be off – 1 anar-se’n 2 ser passat (menjar)

Break down – 1 dividir (per a analitzar) 2 desmuntar 3 patir un col·lapse físic o mental

Come off – 1 desenganxar-se 2 tenir èxit (un afer) Come up – 1 acostar-se 2 sortir (un imprevist) Get on – 1 avenir-se 2 anar fent 3 fer-se gran

Make up – 1 inventar 2 recuperar (p.e., una classe) 3 completar 4 fer les paus 5 maquillar-se Pick up – 1 adquirir per casualitat 2 detenir (un sospitós) 3 passar a recollir (una persona) 4 endreçar (una sala)

Point out – comentar, remarcar, destacar

Put on – 1 posar-se (peça de roba, joies, etc.) 2 produir (un espectacle) 3 guanyar (pes) 4 encendre (el llum) 5 enganyar (humorísticament)

Take in – 1 allotjar (algú a casa) 2 enganyar (algú) 3 entendre (p.e., una idea) 4 estrènyer (una peça de roba) 5 acollir (un animal)

Work out – 1 fer exercici, entrenar-se 2 tenir un bon resultat

 

 

1.1.         Use of infinitives

English has two infinitive forms: the bare infinitive (eg work) and the full infinitive (eg to work). The first is used almost exclusively in verb tenses (eg we work, we don’t work, etc.), the imperative (eg Work harder!), and as the complement of modal verbs (eg we can work, we will work, etc.). On the other hand, the full infinitive is used principally as  a  complement – whether of nouns, adjectives or verbs, or as an extraposed subject (eg It is important to work = To work is important). These constructions are a bit more complicated and we’ll give examples of them in the pertinent sections.

 

 

1.8.1.         Use of the bare infinitive

The bare infinitive is the form that defines a verb; it is the form we find in the dictionary. Its most important use is as the verb form in the simple present (see Sy 5.1.1.), and as the form used in non-affirmative constructions in the simple present and simple past (see Sy 5.2.). What’s more, it is also used in subjunctive constructions. Examples:

We live in Vic.

We don’t live in Vic. We didn’t live in Vic. I insist that it be soon.

The bare infinitive is also used in imperative constructions (see Sy 5.13.). Examples:

Come here. Don’t leave. Let’s go home.

Another important use of the bare infinitive is as the complement of modal verbs and such semi-modal constructions as be able to, be supposed to, have to, etc. Examples:

They might not know. I can’t see a thing.

You’re not supposed to close the window. No one had to pay.

 

The bare infinitive can also be used as the complement of constructions headed by verbs of perception, such as hear and see, and the causative verbs make, have and let. As we shall see in the following section (Sy 5.11.), gerunds can also be used in this context with little change in meaning. Examples:

I heard them come in. I see you like dogs.

I’ll make him tell the truth. We’ll have him call you.

They don’t let me use the phone.

Finally, the bare infinitive can occasionally be used in combination with a noun to describe what the noun does. Examples:

 

 

bee-sting	rattlesnake
earthquake	sunrise
hangman	tugboat
headache	watchdog
heartbeat

 

 

1.8.2.        Use of the full infinitive

The full infinitive is used primarily as a complement of adjectives, nouns and verbs, as an extraposed subject, or in expressions of intention. We will see that C_ATALAN translates many of these cases inserting a preposition.

The full infinitive as an adjective or noun complement

Here are some common examples of the use of the full infinitive as an adjective or noun complement.

We’re pleased to see you.

I was foolish to believe them. She’s certain to win.

He’s afraid to go in.

I’m too tired to start over. I have a lot to do.

You have the right to remain silent. It was a night to remember.

It’s time to get up.

I have enough money to buy it.

It should be noted that if the subject of the infinitive is different to that of the main verb, the construction adjective/noun + for + noun + full infinitive must be used. Note that in this second case C_ATALAN uses a subordinate construction with the verb in the subjunctive. Examples:

We’d be happy for them to stay with us. Estaríem contents que es quedessin amb nosaltres. It’s too heavy for me to lift.

És massa pesant perquè jo el pugui aixecar.

 

We need someplace for them to play.

Ens cal algun lloc perquè puguin tocar.

There’s enough light for them to see the road.

Hi ha prou llum perquè puguin veure el camí.

The full infinitive as a verb complement

The majority of English verbs that take other verbs as complements require the full infinitive. We should mention here, however, that many also require gerunds, and we will study these cases in the following section (Sy 5.11.). An extensive article detailing the possibilities of verb complementation by infinitives or gerunds in English can be found at visca.com/ apac/articles/verb_comp/.

In the following examples, note that English precedes the full infinitive with the adverb not

when the infinitive is negative.

I want to see your pictures. I’m beginning to see the light. They’ve offered to help us.

We’ve decided not to go. We tried not to laugh.

When the subject of the infinitive is different to that of the main clause, English uses the construction verb + noun + full infinitive. Examples:

I want him to know how I feel. I like my children to eat well.

The full infinitive as an extraposed subject

Although the full infinitive is not normally used as a subject – in this case, a gerund is generally used – it is used in the construction it is + adjective + full infinitive. Examples:

It is important to be on time. It was hard to hear him.

It would be better to wait.

The full infinitive in expressions of intention

English uses the full infinitive in expressions of intention. It is important to keep in mind that in this case C_ATALAN uses the combination per/per a + infinitive, and to avoid translating the preposition per/per a into English. Examples:

I go to Girona to see my uncle. Vaig a Girona per veure el meu oncle. They should have stopped to sleep. Haurien d’haver parat per a dormir.

I eat to live, I don’t live to eat.

Menjo per viure, no visc per menjar.

 

1.9.        Use of gerunds (present participles)

In modern English this form is often referred to as the gerund-participle, since it is used as both a present participle in continuous tenses and as a gerund (a verb that acts as a noun). For the sake of simplicity, we will call this form simply a gerund.

 

English gerunds can act as verbs, adverbs, adjectives and nouns. We will dedicate a subsection to each of these cases.

Use of gerunds as verbs

The gerund is used, following the verb be, in all English continuous tenses. See Sy 5.1. Examples:

They are singing.

I was reading in the library.

I have been waiting for you for an hour. He hadn’t been working long.

Use of gerunds as adverbs

As is the case in C_ATALAN, the gerund can be used as an adverb to describe a verb. Examples:

I slipped coming out of the house. They ran screaming from the house. Turning the corner, we saw our friends.

Use of gerunds as adjectives

We have already seen in section Sy 2.5. that gerundial adjectives normally describe permanent qualities of the nouns they modify (eg an interesting film una pel·lícula interessant, a boring class una classe avorrida). They can also be used to describe what the noun they modify is used for, as in the case of dining room, or to describe the kind of thing being modified, eg drinking water. Examples:

 

chewing gum dancing girl frying pan

hiding place sleeping bag swimming pool

 

Use of gerunds as nouns

When used as the subjects of a sentence, an English verb usually takes on the form of a gerund, unlike the C_ATALAN, which uses the infinitive. The gerund is also used as a subject complement. Examples:

Swimming is healthy. Learning English is difficult. Smoking is expensive.

My favourite sport is fishing. Her first job was selling clothes.

The gerund is also always used after prepositions.

I did it without thinking.

I’m looking forward to seeing you. Kings aren’t used to waiting.

 

For certain verbs, the gerund is also used as a verb complement. In some cases, this corresponds to C_ATALAN use, but in many others English uses a gerund where C_ATALAN uses an infinitive. What’s more, some verbs can take either an infinitive or a gerund as a complement, sometimes with a change of meaning, sometimes without.

 

Verbs that can only take a gerund as a verb complement
avoid	keep
can’t help	mind
can’t stand	miss
delay	practise
deny	quit
end up	recommend
enjoy	regret
finish	risk
give up

 

Examples:

I avoid seeing them.

We can’t help being concerned. They ended up staying home. She still hasn’t finished dressing. Keep working!

I didn’t mind waiting. I have to quit smoking.

Here is a list of verbs that can take either the gerund or the infinitive as a verb complement, with little or no change of meaning.

 

 

Verbs that can take either the gerund or the infinitive as a verb complement
afford	like
begin	prefer
continue	start
hate

 

Examples:

We can’t afford living/to live in Barcelona. I hate to mop/mopping.

When Isabel came in we started singing/to sing.

The verbs mean, need, remember, stop and try can take either a gerund or verb as a complement, but the meanings are quite different. Examples:

We mean to do it without fail! Estem decidits de fer-ho sens falta! That would mean driving all night. Això voldria dir portar cotxe tota la nit.

 

We need to talk.

Hem de parlar.

The house needs painting.

Cal pintar la casa.

I didn’t remember to close the door.

No vaig recordar de tancar la porta.

I remember closing the door. Recordo d'haver tancat la porta. We stopped to have lunch.

Vam parar per dinar.

He stopped crying when he saw her.

Va parar de plorar quan la veié.

The cat tried to get down from the tree.

El gat intentava de baixar de l'arbre.

Have you tried emailing him?

Ho has intentat enviant-li un correu electrònic?

I want to see you after the meeting.

Et vull veure després de la festa.

 

1.11.        Use of past participles

The past participle in English is used in three main ways:

As a verb form, following the auxiliary have.

We have finished our homework. He said he hadn’t seen her.

Tomorrow we will have been here one year.

If you had phoned me, I would have come over.

As a verb form in the passive voice.

The house was built last year.

The meal has been prepared by the men.

She is respected by everyone who knows her.

As an adjective, modifying nouns.

This broken glass should be swept up. The written word has great power.

Please correct the attached files.

We should also note that participles are used with the verbs get (and, less often, turn) to describe a change of state. Here is a list of some of the most common of these constructions, which are generally translated by pronominal verbs in C_ATALAN.

 

get bored – avorrir-se get dressed – vestir-se get drunk – emborratxar-se get excited – emocionar-se get hurt – fer-se mal get lost – perdre’s

get married – casar-se get scared – espantar-se get stuck – encallar-se get tired – cansar-se get used to – acostumar-se

 

Examples:

I’m getting bored. He got hurt.

Don’t get lost!

When are you getting married? I got tired of waiting.

You’ll get used to it.

 

1.12.        Imperatives

Second person (singular and plural) affirmative

In English, the second person singular and plural imperative affirmative – ie, the bare infinitive – without a subject is used to give orders. Note that, whereas C_ATALAN has  four different expressions, depending on the person addressed, English has just one. Examples:

Come here.

Vine. Veniu. Vingui. Vinguin.

Speak more slowly.

Parla/Parleu/Parli/Parlin més a poc a poc.

Second person (singular and plural) negative

The second person singular and plural imperative negative is expressed with the composition don’t + bare infinitive. Note again that, whereas C_ATALAN has four different expressions, depending on the person addressed, English has just one. Examples:

Don’t touch me!

No em toquis/toqueu/toqui/toquin!

Don’t leave the door open.

No deixis/deixeu/deixi/deixin la porta oberta.

First person plural affirmative

The first person plural affirmative in English is expressed with the combination let’s + bare infinitive. The word let’s is a contraction of let us, which is only used in formal contexts (eg Let us pray = Preguem). Examples:

Let’s look at the search results in greater detail. Let’s go to the beach.

First person plural negative

The first person plural negative in English is expressed with the combination let’s not +   bare infinitive. Again, the word let’s is a contraction of let us, which  is  only  used  in formal contexts (eg let us not forget those who have died for their beliefs = no oblidem els qui han mort per les seves creences). Examples:

Let’s not leave yet. Let’s not be hasty.

First person (singular and plural) interrogative

The first person interrogative imperative is an informal way of making a suggestion, and uses the construction shall I/we + bare infinitive. Examples:

Shall we dance?

Shall I open the window?